INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
What is research?
Research: Refers to the scientific and systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting data based on the specific phenomena. Normally research it is a journey from known to unknown.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. Research it is logical: Research it based much on reasoning. has good organizations of materials and a researcher is required to think logically in identifying the problem to be researched.
2. Research it is systematic: This means that research follows some rules and procedures to be meaningful.
3. Research it is empirical: Research it needs evidences which can be verified by observation.
4. Research it is replicable: Research can be repeated by other researchers to obtain the same result.
5. Researcht it is verifireble: means research need proving in a certain phenomena.
6. Research it requires expertise: Research need enough knowledge. It cannot be conducted by any one. it is conducted by researchers.
7. It is goal oriented/objectivity: This means that research cannot be conducted without a purpose.
8. Cumulative: The research should accumulate knowledge from what has already done.
9. Theory driven: Research is normally deal with theory to generate reality. The knowledge is coming from the theories after be tested.
10. Rigorous: The research ensure that the method of answering question is correct and relevant.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
1. To gain deeper understanding on a phenomena.
2. To provides accurate features of a phenomena.
3. To determine the frequency in which something occurs.
4. To test hypothesis: so as to obtain the relationship between data variables.
5. To generate new knowledge.
6. To solve various problems facing the society.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
1. It helps to promote critical thinking to the society.
2. It helps policy makers to make the right decision.
3. It provide field of specialization. Example masters or PhD learners must conduct research.
4. It is a source of income, where by some people employ themselves in big organizations to do research.
5. It helps to solve various problems facing the society.
6. It helps to make prediction about a certain phenomena.
7. It helps to generate new ideas.
LIMITATION/DISADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH
1. Time consuming.
2. Source of wrong information.
3. It need enough capital since it is expensive.
4. It is conducted only by the researchers.
5. It is highly affected by environmental conditions like rainfall etc.
6. It is risk to the researchers.
8. It can be subjected with bias.
TYPES OF RESEARCHES
There are different ways in which research can be classified, these include;
A. According to purpose of the research
Under this category there are two types which are:-
1. Basic or fundamental research: is the type of research which aim at generating new idea or theory.
2. Applied or Action research: is the type of research which based on finding immediate solution for the problem facing the society. For example issue of Ebola, Dengue, etc.
B. According to the nature collected data/approach
In this category there are two types:-
3. Quantitative research: is the research which based on phenomenas that expressed in quantities. Quantitative research is divided in to two. It focus on testing the relationship between data variables whether are related or not. Example the relationship between the amount of study and performance.
a). Experimental research: it based on doing experiment between two variables. It use the independent variable as the manipulative variable which control other variable. Example time.
b). Non-experimental research: it focus on studying some ideas from the society views rather than manipulation of independent variable.
4. Qualitative research: This is the research approach which based on critical analysis of the phenomena in details. It is usually applied to the phenomena which is expressed in terms of descriptions.
Types of qualitative approaches
i. Ethnography: is research which based studying the socialtal cuture and values. Example collecting data about FGM in kurya society.
ii. Case studies: it based on studying of the phenomena in details. Example studying about pupils in urban areas.
iii. Content analysis: it focuses on analysis of contents of a written text. Example library research.
C). Based on nature
5. Descriptive researches: is the research which based on describing the phenomena in details.
6. Analytical research: is the type of research which based on analyzing a certain phenomena by using the available facts.
It normally use the available facts already available and analyses these facts to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Other types of Research
1. Empirical research: relies on intensive interpretation of data and come up with conclusion which is capable of being verified through observation/experiment.
2. Conceptual research: is related to some abstract ideas. It is used to develop new concept.
3. Exploratory research: Is conducted when a researcher explores things like gold, iron, diamond, and other mates related to mining.
4. Explanatory research: Is a research that explain about a certain phenomena.
5. Evaluative research: is thetype of research which is conducted purposely to measure or asses the achievement of a certain scientific practice.
6. Field research: this is the research which based on investigation of the phenomena and drawing conclusion from the collected data.
7. Field work/strip: is the research which involves the journey for going to conduct research.
CATEGORIES OF FIELD WORK
Field work can be divided into three categories, namely,
i. Field excursion or trip.
ii. Field study
iii. Field research
1. Field excursion or trip: refers to the field’s journey aiming for conducting research.
2. Field study: A field study refers to research that involves collection of research data and providing the report of what a researcher observed.
3. Field research: refer to study of materials collected and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
RESEARCH PROCESSES/PROCEDURES/STAGES
These are systematic steps that a researcher has to follow when conducting research, these procedures or processes research:-
i. Problem identification.
ii. Literature review
iii. Formulation of hypothesis.
iv. Research design
v. Pre-survey/reconnaissance.
vi. Data collection
vii. Data analysis
viii. Data interpretation.
ix. Hypothesis testing
x. Report writing.
1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
What is research problem?
Research problem: This is the specific topic which makes the researcher to conduct the research. Research problem can be behaviour of students, subject performance, diseases or any phenomena whether is good or bad. Threrefore researcher must identify and understood well the research problem before going to other stages. However the research problem sometimes is called research title.
EXAMPLE OF RESEARCH PROBLEM/TITLE
1. Investigation on the relationship between discipline and student's performance.
2. Assessment on the relationship between home economic status and student's school dropout.
3. Research on how poverty contributes to Environmental degradation.
4. An investigation on the causes Poor result of form four students 2012.
Characteristics/ attributes of good research problem
1. It should be manageable- in terms of time and money.
2. It should be researchable, must be investigable
.
3. It should be interested to the researcher.
4. It should seek to bring originality.
5. There must be economical significance.
6. There must be clearly that is free from ambiguity.
7. It should be ethically appropriate. That is a researcher has to consider ethics such as using numbers instead of using the names of respondents..
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. From theories.
2. Literature reviews.
3. Practical/actual situation
4. The researcher interests.
5. Technological advancement.
6. Authority.
7. Casual observations.
8. Reasoning/inquiries.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF RESEARCH TOPIC/TITLE/PROBLEM
i. Time availability: The researcher should allocate enough time to deal with given research problem.
ii. Personal interests: The researcher should select the topic from his or her interests.
iii. Financial status: Before selecting the research title the researcher should first think about financial budget since some research topics need enough money.
iv. The nature of respondents: Before selecting the research title the researcher should first think about the characteristics of his/respondents based on different criteria like the level of education, economic status, gender category, and so on.
v. Physical accessibility to the respondents: Before selecting the research title the researcher should first think about accessibility to his or her respondents because some respondents are not easily physical assessible.
vi. Ethical consideration: Before selecting the research title the researcher should consider the ethical issue towards his or her respondents. This is very important because it help researcher to avoid conflicts with respondents.
vii. Reference availability: The researcher should ensure availability of enough reference materials as the sources of literature review.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Research objectives: Are the purpose of conducting any kind of research. Normally the research objective may be to identify the causes of a certain phenomena, to find out the solution about a social problem, or to assess the impact of a certain phenomena.
TYPES OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
There are two types of research objectives which are:-
1. General objectives: These are objectives which state in general form towards the research topic.
Example of general objectives
–To improve the academic performance to the students of Kaondeni secondary school.
–To identify challenges facing agriculture in Tanzania
–To identify the relationship between poverty and environmental degradation.
2. Specific objectives: These are objectives which state in a specific form towards the research topic.
Qn: Waza Online he tasked by the regional educational officer to conduct research about the problem of early pregnancy at Kaondeni secondary school. Thus;
a). Identify the type of research which will be conducted by mr Said.
b). Propose three purpose/specific objective of his study.
c). Give out three research questions.
d). Create one suitable research problem.
e). Propose two research hypothesis (altenative and null).
f). Identify three dada collection tools that will be appliend.
g). Identify four challenges that might face mr said on his research.
Example of specific objectives
i. To identify the root causes of early pregnancy to the students of Kaondeni secondary school.
ii. To assess the impacts of early pregnancy to the academic performance of students of Kaondeni secondary school.
iii. To find out the solution to address the problem of early pregnancy to the student of Kaondeni secondary school.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research questions: Are the questions asked by the researcher by considering the specific objectives. Example from the queatiob above the best research questions are:-
i. What are the causes of early pregnancy to the students of Kaondeni secondary school?
ii. What are the mpacts of early pregnancy to the students of academic performance of Kaondeni secondary school?
iii. What should be done to address the problem of early pregnancy to the students of Kaondeni secondary school?
2. LITERATURE REVIEWS
Literature reviews: This is the critical studying of various documents related to the research problem/topic so as the researcher to acquire experience on how the to deal with existing problem. It involves reading books, journals, articles and other reports that relates to the question or topic to be investigated.
OBJECTIVES/REASONS FOR LITERATURE REVIEW
1. To determine what has already done related to present topic.
2. To avoid unnecessary repetition to what has already done.
3. To redefine the research problem.
4. To select the appropriate data collection tools.
5. To conduct research in unique way.
6. To determine the gap between known and unknown.
7. To select the adequate sample size.
CHARACTERISTICS/QUALITIES OF A GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW
1. It should be relates to the study.
2. It should demonstrate how the approach of study is differ from other works.
3. It should justify the needs for the study. That is you must give the reason for doing
such a research.
4. It should analyze the possible methodological errors.
5. It should be inductive: must starts from general to specific.
6. It should focus on important issues.
7. It should give critical explanation about the phenomena. This will helps to identify something which is unknown.
8. It should focus in the variables of the study.
SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. From journals. Example femina.
2. Text books.
3. News paper.
4. Encyclopedia.
5. Government documents like constitution, education policy, circulars etc.
6. Statistical data.
7. Televisions and radios.
8. Internet.
IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. It help researcher to understand what is already done related to the study.
2. It help researcher to avoid unnecessary repetition to what has already done.
3. It helps a researcher to redefine his/her research problem.
4. It helps a researcher to select adequate samples.
5. It helps a researcher to select appropriate research method.
6. It save time since it simplify research processes.
GUIDELINES FOR REVIEWING LITERATURE
1. To know the purpose of reviewing literature, The litereture reviewer mus know well the main purpose for reviewing the literature.
2. Developing searching technique. By using subject heading and key words.
3. Provide references to any literature used.
4. The rearcher should start with most recent informations.
5. The researcher should provide bibliography.
6. The researcher should show literature related to the study.
i. The author of the document: known and respected in this field? ii References used in the document: Or is it match with others?
iii. Look the biasness: Such as political, religious, racial, or personal.
iv Look the objectives of the information: it propagates or force people to accept a certain idea?
v Time of publication: But this depends on the kind of research you are doing, that whether it needs current information or old information?
3. FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis formulation: Is a stage of conducting research wheteby the researcher develop the statement to predict the outcome of the study. Hypothesis: is the statement that predict about the outcome of the research. Normally it can state aither positive or negative way.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS.
1. Alternative hypothesis: This is the statement which state in a positive way. This normally says yes. Normally it indicate that there is relation ship between data variables. Example:-
– The problem of early pregnancy to the students of Kaondeni secondary school is caused by poverty.
–There is relationship between discipline and students perfomance.
2. Null hypothesis: This is the statement which state in negative way. This normally says no. Normally it indicate that there is no relation ship between data variables. Example:
–The problem of early pregnancy to the students of Kaondeni secondary school is caused by improper parent care.
–There is no relationship between discipline and students perfomance. HYPOTHESIS AND ITS VARIABLES
VARIABLE: Is anything that change or varies. Or is anything that shows variation or differences. Or is a factor or characteristics of interest that a researcher would like to handle, observe or manipulates in the research. Examples are age, sex, weight, height, intelligence, academic performance, etc.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. Independent variables: is the variable which control other variables. E.g Time. Normally researchers use independent variable as manipulative variable to test the causal and effect relationship.
Example: Alcohol: Independent variable.
2. Dependent variables: Is the variable which depend from other variables to change. It is controlled by independent variable.
drunker: is dependent variable bicause he/she depend from alcohol.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
A good research hypothesis has the following characteristics:-
i. Power of Prediction: A good hypothesis should able to predict for future. It not only clears the present problematic situation but also predict for the future that what would be happened in the coming time. So, hypothesis is a best guide of research activity due to power of prediction.
ii. Closest to observable things: A hypothesis must have close contact with observable things. It does not believe on air castles but it is based on observation. Those things and objects which we cannot observe, for that hypothesis cannot be formulated. The verification of a hypothesis is based on observable things.
iii. Simplicity: A hypothesis should be so dabble to every layman, P.V young says, “A hypothesis would be simple, if a researcher has more in sight towards the problem”. W- ocean stated that, “A hypothesis should be as sharp as razor’s blade”. So, a good hypothesis must be simple and have no complexity.
iv. It should be clear: A hypothesis must be conceptually clear. It should be clear from ambiguous information’s. The terminology used in it must be clear and acceptable to everyone.
v. It should be testable/Testability: A good hypothesis should be tested empirically. It should be stated and formulated after verification and deep observation. Thus testability is the primary feature of a good hypothesis.
vi. Relevant to Problem: If a hypothesis is relevant to a particular problem, it would be considered as good one. A hypothesis is guidance for the identification and solution of the problem, so it must be accordance to the problem.
vii. Specific: It should be formulated for a particular and specific problem. It should not include generalization. If generalization exists, then a hypothesis cannot reach to the correct conclusions.
viii. Relevant to available Techniques: Hypothesis must be relevant to the techniques which is available for testing. A researcher must know about the workable techniques before formulating a hypothesis.
ix. Fruitful for new Discoveries: It should be able to provide new suggestions and ways of knowledge. It must create new discoveries of knowledge. Hypothesis is the best source of new knowledge it creates new ways of discoveries”.
x. Consistency and harmony: It should be out of contradictions and conflicts. There must be a close relationship between variables which one is dependent on other.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
1. It predict the outcome of the research.
2. It enable the researcher to be systematic.
3. It help to check the validity of the research outcome.
4. It simplify research process.
5. It avoid assumption in research.
6. It help to turn theory in to practice.
PROBLEMS FACING RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
i. Lack of ability of formulating hypothesis.
ii. Inadequate time.
iii. Environmental problem.
iv. unclear theory.
v. Unclear hypothesis.
vi. Bias.
4. SELECTING RESEARCH DESIGN
What is research design?
Selecting research design: This refers to the general frame work or roadmap which shows show the guideline on how research will be conducted successfully. This include research approaches, methods, time budget plan, sample size and sampling techniques.
NB: Research design is governed by the notion of “fitness for the purpose”. The considerations during research design
During the preparation of research design the following factors should be put in to consideration:-
i. Availability of time.
ii. Availability of researche team/staff.
iii. Availability of means of transport.
iv. The availability of means of collecting data.
v. The nature of research problem.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
There are several types research design, some of them include;
1. Historical research design: This type reconstructs the past objectively and accurately through revival approach. Normally it relies on the reports of others, and looks on the past evidence. It also seeks to test authenticity or validity of reports or others observations.
2. Survey research design: This type focuses on describing a phenomena, person, situation or event. It describes phenomena accurately, it may also make comparisons between phenomena, and also it analyzes the phenomena. It uses large sample size normally above 1000. Thus it has great number of respondents.
3. Case study research design: It is an intensive analysis of individual unit of study. Here a researcher has to have two unit of study, that is because if one unit does not suit use the other. The purpose of case study is to come with detailed or in-depth information of a certain unit of study. NB: its weakness is that it limits generalizations.
6. Developmental research design: This type of research design aims at accepting changes over extended period of time. It is categorized in to two types,
i. Longitudinal research design: in this a researcher goes time after time to collect data example if you want primary school student report go when students are standard 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, &7, and collect their data.
ii. cross sectional research design: in this kind a researcher goes once and collect the whole data. by using above example a researcher can go after the students completed standard 7 and collect their data.
7. Co-relational research design: It investigates the relationships between the variables, that is independent and dependent variables. It investigates to what extents variables relate, thus you need to go to quantifications where numbers are used, it uses quantitative approach and there is no room for qualitative approach.
The relationship can be positive if one variable increases and the other variable also increases.
it can be negative if one variable increases and other variable decreases. It has no room to justify that variable X causes another variable to happen, it is only the relationships.
8. Casual comparative research design: ( Ex-post facto research design) This looks on the factor for, causes for, or reasons for., which is if they are not known there, is no need to do that particular research. It investigates the possible causes and effects between the variables. Here also a researcher needs to identify the variables which cause effects on other variables.
9. Experimental research design: The aim of this design is to investigate the possible cause relationships between variables. In this design a researcher can control independent variables in order to see its effects on dependent variables; this makes a researcher to have two groups that is Control group and Experimental group. It does not rely on laboratory only, it can be conducted out of laboratory but you have to ensure the condition for the experiment to take place. A researcher has to consider extraneous/intervening variable so that he/she may not provides false information.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
There are two types and both types has control and experimental groups, but the differences is on selection of groups, these types are;
i). true experimental research design: the selection of sample are random thus each participants has an equal chance to be selected at either control or experimental groups. it is done by scientists such as in Biology, Chemistry and Physics. It is most expensive such as buying of chemicals. It is easier to replicates the study.
ii). Quasi experimental research design: the selection of groups is not done randomly,
here a researcher need to have reasons why individual X go to control or experimental groups and not individual Y. it forces a researcher to go to the purposes of doing the research. it is mostly chosen by social scientists. Not much expensive. It is difficult to replicates the study because behavior change time to time.
Similarities between true and quasi experimental research design
i). both uses control and experimental groups.
ii). Both you need to observe changes.
iii). Both you can change the variables.
iv). Both go for casual relationships.
8. Action research design: It looks for immediate solution to existing problems. For example diarrhea outbreak in the school campus. Normally it is designed to come out with immediate solution for existing problem.
9. Evaluation research design: It evaluates a project, program, situation or phenomena. It assess if the expected outcomes has occurred or not, thus you need to know the aims/objectives, purposes, expected results and instruments to be used in a particular inventory. Thus if the project objective has not achieved suggests for improvements, if it may harm people suggests to be abolished, and if it has gone well and good suggest to be maintained.
NB: a researcher has to select good design according to his/her research problem and must be able to reflect with the design. There are many designs but above are the mostly useful ones.
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES IN RESEARCH
SAMPLE: Is the small portion in which the researcher select from the large population. SAMPLING: Is the process of selecting samples from population.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES: Are the different specific steps considered by the researchers on selecting samples.
SAMPLE SIZE: Is the numbers of samples/participants. Is the numbers of participants chosen by researcher for study.
POPULATION: Is the group of items in which the rearcher choose for study. Normally polulation can be people, animals, insects, things etc. For example: public schools, school teachers, children under the age of 18 years, and others.
TARGET POPULATION: Is the specific population interested by the researcher to be chosen for study.
ACCESSIBLE POPULATION: Is the population which can be accessed or reached by the researcher for study.
UNACCESSIBLE POPULATION: Is the population which cannot be accessed or reached by the researcher for study. Example dangerous animals.
SAMPLING ERRORS: Is the difference between the value of the sample statistics and the value of population parameters. Here a researcher has to subtract (-). Normally this error cannot be avoided when conducting research.
RESPONSE RATE: Is the percentage of people or elements in the sample selected for the study.
THE SAMPLING FRAME: Is the list of individuals in a population in terms of names and numbers. For example: 1. Rehema, 2. Ombiso, 3. Juma.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling techniques: Are those different methods employed by the researchers to select samples for study. These are methods that researchers use in order to obtain sample from population.
PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING DESIGN
i. Understanding the nature of environment.
ii. Understanding the nature of population.
iii. Consider time availability.
iv. Selecting sampling frame.
v. Selecting sampling size.
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
There are several sampling techniques, and all are categorized in to two categories which are:-
A). PROBABILITY OR RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Probability sampling: Is the sampling technique where by each individual person have equal chance to be selected to become part of the study. The findings from this type can be used in generalizations, because the sample is obtained by equal chances to all.
NB: This type is useful in Quantitative research approach.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Simple random sampling: this is the haphazard selecting of sample. Under this technique samples are obtained randomly. what is required is for a researcher to have sample frame and sample size. It has equal chance for all.
2. Systematic sampling technique: Is the systematic selection of participants in the study. It involves selection of each Nth term. RFor example after every 5, every 10, every 15, etc. so in order for a researcher to use this technique he/she must choose Nth term to use and this depends on sample size. Small sample size- distance between 1 individual and other will be smaller. Large sample size- distance between 1 individual and other will be long/large.
3. Stratified sampling technique: It is the sampling technique which based on dividing the population in to smaller groups known as stratum/strata. 1 group=stratum, more than 1 group =strata. Normally the population may be divided based on age group, gender, level of education, economic status, marital status and others should be considered by a researcher. Example: have a sampling frame that you think fit to your study, population is 400 individuals, sample size is 200 individuals, determine your groups example by gender, assume there are more male than female 264 male and 136 female, then calculate percentage of each group example 136/400X100=34%, 264/400X100=66%. From that a researcher may decides to use either proportional or disproportional stratified sampling.
i. Proportional stratified sampling technique. In this type proportional of each sub- sample reflects a total population of their sub-sample. In above example don’ t select many female because they are few than male who are many. Thus by using percentages of male and female of the sample size you want, 132male and 68 female should be selected.
ii. Dis-proportional stratified sampling technique. Is the opposite of proportional where by the number of sub-sample does not reflects their size in the population. From above example, a researcher may decide to select 140 female and 60 male.
4. Cluster/ ecological sampling technique: some times a researcher may find hard to have sampling frame due to ethical issues so in order to get samples this method is mostly useful. In this type a researcher divides samples in to levels such as from upper- lower level (highest to lowest levels), example all Tanzanians are your population, then divides it in to Regions- Districts- Divisions- Wards- Village- Streets- Households- Single individual. Select sample from each level.
The criteria used to make division are mainly administrative and geographical factors. Here in this type you will be sampling with in a sample. This technique can be done in 3stages, and this make 3types of cluster sampling technique.
i. The one stage cluster sampling technique - here a researcher has got single stage of dividing the population. That is divides your population in one level. Example divides Regions in to Districts and chooses districts to collect information.
ii. Two stage cluster sampling technique - here a researcher divides a population in to two levels. Example divides regions in to districts and districts in to divisions and chooses divisions to collect information.
5. Multi-stage: Is the technique of selecting sample by using several stages. Here the researcher use several stages in selecting samples.
B). NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Non probability sampling: This is the sampling technique where by every person have no equal chance to be selected to become samples. Samples are selected based on their accessibility and availabilty.
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES.
1. Convenience /Accidental/Opportunity sampling technique: This is the sampling technique whre by researcher choose samples because of their availability. That is samples are chosen because they are easier accessed and to recruits. It involves selecting participants according to research convenience such as time, money, resources and others.
2. Consecutive sampling technique: Is the sampling technique which is applicable in areas with small population. It is normally use all members that are available or accessible in the study. Under this technique samples are selected according to their availability or accessibility.
3. Quota sampling technique: This is the sampling technique which based on dividing the population in to sub-groups called Quota. The population can be grouped based on age, gender, education level, level of performance, economic status and others.
4. Judgmental /purposive sampling technique: This is sampling technique where by sample or individual are chosen to become part of sample because of specific purposes. Example: some participants may be chosen because they are familiar with different phenomenas.
5. Snow-ball/ strategic sampling technique: This is the sampling technique where by the researcher choose some individuals to represent unaccessible population. In this sampling technique researcher has to identify and select individuals and ask them questions on behalf of others, by ensuring that the chosen individuals on behalf of others must fit to the study, then interview them until the sample size that is needed is obtained. It is applied to the population which is not accessible. Example: Data collection about homosexuality.
IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING/SAMPLE
1. It save time in research.
2. It simplify research processes.
3. It reduce risk to the researchers.
4. It help research to be successful.
5. It help to acquire information about unacceptable population. Example dangerous animal.
6. It helps to minimize cost.
DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING/SAMPLE
i. It is risk to the researcher
ii. Time consuming.
iii. Poor representation.
iv. Low experience of sampling techniques.
v. Poor relationship between sample and represented population.
QUALITY/CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE
1. There should be select randomly.
2. There should be good representation.
3. There should be equal proportional in representation.
4. There should goal oriented.
5. There should be non predictable.
5. RESEARCH RECONNAISSANCE/PRE-SURVEY
Reconnaissance survey/research: is stage of conducting research whereby the researcher has to visit the area before the actual data collection.
Importance/advantages of research reconnaissance
i. It simplify research processes.
ii. It help researcher to prepare the suitable data collection tools.
iii. It enable researchers to be familiar with area to be investigated.
iv. It help researcher to select the adequate sample size.
v. It help researcher to identify the possible difficulties that are likely to occur.
vi. It enable the researcher to identify the nature of population study.
vii. It help researcher to prepare enough budget which will be used. These include both time, research team/staff and money.
6. DATA COLLECTION
Data collection: Thi is the stage which deal with collecting information by using various techniques of data collection. A researcher has to collect enough amount of data about the research problem so that to have enough knowledge about the it.
RESEARCH DATA
Data: refers to the body of information which collected from the field.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH DATA
1. Primary data: These are data which are collected directly from a field of study. For example, through field visits, tours, interviews, observations and for the most usage through questionnaires. Here a researcher is required to go direct to the field and collect data about the research study.
2. Secondary data: These are data that have been obtained and used for the first time and they are colledeted for secondary or continuous uses. The secondary data are obtained from different sources like internet, televisions, radios, books, journals, magazines, and other second hands sources.
NB: The use of best equipments to collect data will help a researcher to obtain enough amounts of data and high quality data that are related to the researched problem.
Things to consider on selecting research tools
1. Objectives of the research.
2. Nature of the environment: For example from people, files, books, internet, televisions etc.
3. Resources and time availability.
4. The nature of data needed: How complex is the data to be collected.
5. Nature of the population/respondents.
NB: Thus; each instrument has strength and weaknesses, a researcher should know this, so that to select best instrument with very few weaknesses.
RESEARCH TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS/TECHNIQUES
Research tools: Are methods or techniques that researcher uses in order to collect data. Normally the research tools include:-
i. Observations.
ii. Interviews.
iii. Questionnaires.
iv. Documentary reviews.
v. Experiments.
vi. Focus group discussion etc.
1. OBSERVATION METHOD
Refer to the method of data collection where by the researcher particioateful direct to the events. Under this technique the researcher use evidences through seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling and what they smelling.
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS IN RESEARCH
Observations in research are categorized in to three types;
i. Naturalistic observations: In this type subject/people under study are not aware that they are being observed/ studied.
ii. Participant observations: Here a researcher participates together with subject / people under study and stay with them in a community for a long period of time (10-15years) while collecting information.
By using this type of observations it is easier to collect information.
iii. Non-participant observations. In this type an observer (researcher) stay aside observing activities while he/she does not participate. This requires an observer/ researcher to have observations schedule.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONS
1. First hand information can be collected easily: because it uses researcher as the main instrument of research.
2. There is no environment modifications: thus a researcher is observing the naturalistic behaviors.
3. It avoids biasness: as it does receive information from someone else.
4. It has no problem of language barriers.
5. It can be carried out any time.
DIS ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONS
1. It is too much time consuming.
2. It can potentially be dangerous. That is socially, physically, legally, and even psychologically. Example in non-participant observations.
3. It can cause wrong informations.
4. Source of biasenes: This occurs if there is misinterpretations of what observed
5. It create fear to some respondents: hence some basic informations may not obtained.
2. INTERVIEW METHOD
This is a verbal or oral interaction between two or more people which is designed to get
information.
INTERVIEWER: is a person who interviews the interviewee. INTERVIEWEES: Are respondents that answer the interviewer’s questions. Types of interview
Interviews vary in terms of purposes, nature and scope/coverage this produce three types which are:-
i. Structured interviews. Is the type of interviews which provides limit response to the respondent. Example do you think poverty can be eradicated in our country? Yes or No. in this type researcher has predetermined list of questions and there is no supplementary question, thus each respondents is faced with identical question. This type is standardized and formal.
ii. Semi-structured interviews. Is the type of interview which provide little chance of reaponse to the respondent. This type of interview cannot strictly control the response of respondent. For example what happen to you when you were form three?
iii. Unstructured interviews. Is the type of intwrview which provide enough chance or freedom of response to the respondents. Example why do some students perform poorly in mathematics?
PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING OF A GOOD INTERVIEW
1. Create friendly respondents, This enables respondent to express in detail their thought and feelings.
2. Maintain personality.
3. Be neutral and don’t suggest any answer.
4. Maintain the confidence and trust to the respondent by assuming his/her information given would be confidential.
5. Explain in briefly the purpose of the interview.
ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS
1. It provides deep information.
2. It needs simple equipments, such as note book, pen, etc.
3. It is flexible.
4. It have high response rate.
5. It is simple in data analysis.
DIS ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS
1. It is time consuming.
2. It is difficult in data analysis as it produce non-standardized responses.
3. Less reliability as there is no consistency.
4. It is costly because it involves travelling in a geographically wide spread area to interviews people.
5. The interviewees may be highly subjective, biased, shy, or express discomfort in response.
3. QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaire: Is a set of questions that a respondent is asked to fill in. It involves the use of written down items in form of questions or statements to which the respondent individually respond by writing. It depends on written form.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
There are two types which are:-
i. Closed questionnaires: Here researchers prepare questions that require short responses. The closed questionnaires has option that requires a respondent to choose, thus respondent is not free to give his/ her idea. Example, are you sick? A) Yes B) No.
ii. Open questionnaires: Here a researcher prepare questions that gives an opportunities for respondents to responds in own words.
iii. Mail questionnaires: This is the type of questionnaires which involves mailing questions to the respondent. It can be through post mail. It calls for free responses as there is no a clue or choices for responses. Example, why Tanzania is not a rich nation?
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE QUESTIONAIRES
1. Questions /statements should be clear in terms of spelling and grammar so that respondents will understand questions/statements easily.
2. Questions or statement should contain one idea or concept.
3. Long or complicated items are mostly avoided as it may fail to get respondents.
4. It should not contain biased items.
PROCEDURES CONSIDERED IN PREPARING QUESTIONNAIRES
1. Questions should be short and straight forward
2. Question should be asked and should follow the order
3. Question should be polite
4. Question should avoid bias.
5. There should be starts from simple to complex.
6. There must no interfere the respondent side.
ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
1. It permits wide coverage as there is possibility of using distant respondents.
2. It is easy to do data analysis as questionnaires are easier to arrange.
3. Questionnaires supply standardized answers.
4. It is economical in term of time.
DIS ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
1. They are not applicable to illiterate and young children who cannot read or write.
2. It is expensive to produce copies of questions and sending to distant respondents requires money.
3. Questionnaires may get lost, arrive late or not returned at all.
4. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (F.G.D)
The focus group discussion: This is the method of data collection whereby two or more researchers and respondents sit in a group and discuss the research topic or problem. Normally for effectiveness, the group should not less than four and not exceed seven people. However the researcher should avoid dominance of one respondent in speaking in the discussion
ADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
1. It helps a researcher to get many information from respondents.
2. It is easier in data analysis.
3. It is less expensive if the discussion will be conducted at near by place.
4. It involves both experts and non-experts.
5. It is flexible method of data collection.
DIS ADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
1. Some respondents may afraid and fail to participate.
2. One respondent may dominates the whole discussion if a researcher is not care.
3. Conflicts may arise if there is no respects and the researcher is not fair.
4. Time consuming due to long discussion.
5. Sometimes is expensive if the discussion will be at far place.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY THE RESEARCHERS DURING DATA COLLECTION
1. Language problems: Sometimes respondents speak different language to researcher hence bring about difficult in interpretation. Hence cause the success of data collection.
2. Poor transport and communication: This cause problems m on arriving in the field on time.
3. Remoteness of some areas: Some areas are not accessible easier due to physical barrier hence cause poor data collection.
4. Bad traditional biliefs: some societies do not want to express their real life situation publically due to poor beliefs hence cause the failure of data collection.
5. Shortage of time: This cause researcher to collect under estimated data because of lack of enough time.
6. Poor in weather conditions: this include rainfall which cause mistakes in data collection.
7. Low experience among the researchers: Especially in application of techniques of data collection. Example in interview some researchers may fail to frame questions.
8. Poor participation of respondents: Sometimes respondents may fail to participate effectively hence cause the researcher to collect low data.
7. DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis: This is stage which based on analyzing the collected information in to sensible data. Normally researcher has to relate data collected with the research problem hence the unwanted data has to be removed. This is the stage in which the collected informations are analyzed so as to be valid data. The collected data should be processed and analyzed.
8. DATA INTERPRETATION
Data interpretation: The analyzed data has to be interpreted by consideration the nature of research problem. The aim of data interpretation is to chek whether the collected data relate to the research topic or not.
9. HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis testing: Is the stage in which the researcher have to test the formulated hypothesis practically in relation to colleted data. Normally under this stage researchers has to test hypothesis practically and check whether is accepted or rejected. However if hypothesis is accepted the next stage is report writing.
10. REPORT WRITING
Report writing: is the stage in which the collected data are presented to the public, required office, supervisor or to any authority. The information may be presented by using different ways like in a text form (words), graphically, by using charts, tables or by using both systems. Normally in this is the stage the researcher communicates the research result to other researchers or to the public or to the given authority. It is the stage or process of making research information to be known to the other people in an organized and meaningful form. It must be written in a simple and clear language and based on a particular format. It is also called dissertation or thesis. Once data is in the
form of thesis or dissertations it is easy for one to read and understand it.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH REPORT
1. It provides solutions to the problems facing societies.
2. It helps researcher to get views from different people.
3. It helps to increse sources of literature review.
4. Demonstrates exactly how the data revolves around the people.
PARTS /FORMAT OF WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
Writing research report may differ in scope and treatment from place to place, a researcher may decides to follow British style, Chicago university style, American psychological association (APA) style, etc. but all in all the report should be in past- tense, anonymous, passive voice, neat, clear, precise and it should presents data. Research report should have the following major parts.
1. PRE-LIMINARY PAGES
This part provides a guide to the readers and it have the following components:-
i. Title page: It is usually unnumbered and normally written on page one. It should show research title, name of the author, for what reason, and the month/year of submission.
ii. Declaration page: It is on page two; it spells out your oath that the work presented is yours and not of others.
iii. Acknowledgement page: It is on page three; the researcher presents his gratitude to all who have contributed in one way or another for him to accomplish his/her research work.
iv. Table of contents page: It is on page four, but if acknowledgement is long and overlaps other pages, it can be on the page after acknowledgement page. It indicates where various topics and sub-topics can be found from the research work.
v. List of tables page: it shows where diagram, photograph, tables or graphs are indicated in the research work.
vi. List of figures page: This shows mathematical or numerical information.
vii. Abstract page: This is a summary of what presented in few words (100-120 words.) it should clearly point out research problem, subjects, instruments/tools used, procedures, basic results and major conclusion.
2. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
It gives foundations of understanding of problem under investigations. It contains the following elements;
i. Background of the problem: This provides essential information from broad to specific about the problem being researched on.
ii. Statement of the problem. It spells out clearly what a researcher set out to investigate.
iii. Objectives of the study: These are both general and specific objectives which indicate of what the study did.
iv. Significance of the study. it spells out the way the study was conducted and what it should do and who should benefit from it.
v. Scope of the study: It indicates the boundary of the study in terms of contents and geography.
vi. Limitation of the study.
3. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This part is stated in either of the two ways bellow;
i. General reviews. This tries to put out other researches which are directly related to present study. it should base on the variables studied.
ii. Theoretical reviews based on scholars
iii. Empirical review based on specific objectives.
iv. Research gap: Should demonstrate what is not covered and leave chance for incoming studies.
4. CHAPTER THER RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This part explain in details on how the study was conducted. Its major components include:-
i. Research design. It specifies how the data was collected. That is the research methods used.
ii. Study population/subject: These are participants who are being studied. Here a researcher states mode of selection, the number of participants, location, and other demographic characteristics like age and sex.
iii. Study area: This section demonstrate the place where the study conducted and its geographical boundaries if is possible.
iv. Methods of data collection/Research Instruments. This part state any tools used to collect data, such as interviews, questionnaires.
v. Data analysis. It point out how the researcher treated the data, and what statistical instruments was used to make sense out of data.
vi. Sample and sampling procedures: This sub part should show types of sampling techniques used.
5. CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
This part attempts to highlight or shows the findings of the study. It can be presented by discussing each hypothesis and stating the highlights in the study. Statistical tests are stressed; these include level of significance and degree of freedom. Tables, diagrams and figures may be used where is relevant.
6. CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
In this section a researcher now interprets the findings. He/she explains why the findings are in that manner. The findings are linked with other researches to review whether they agree or not. Other factors which were unable to be controlled are specified. Advice, recommendations and other proposal are articulated.
NB: Other researchers prefers to separates chapter five as Discussion, and chapter six as summary, conclusion and recommendations or implications.
REFERENCES
References: This includes all studies cited in the present study. It should come immediately after chapter 5 or 6. It is worldwide accepted to use American psychologist’s association style (APA style).
APPENDICES
Appendices: It contains other relevant materials used, such as test papers, letter of authority, calculations, etc. It come immediately on text page after the reference page.
iv. Glossary: It includes some vocabularies used when writing a report, their meaning, as well as pages they are located.
THE CONCEPT OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Research proposal: Refers to the systematic plans which bring together the preliminary planning which will be needed to accomplish the objectives of the research.
FORMAT /PARTS/COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Normally on writing research proposal may differ in scope and treatment from place to place, a researcher may decides to follow British style, Chicago university style, American psychological association (APA) style, etc. but all in all the research proposal should be in future-tense, anonymous, passive voice, neat, clear, precise and it should presents data. Research report should have the following major parts.
1. PRE-LIMINARY PAGES
This part present the following components or parts:-
i. Title page: It is usually unnumbered and normally written on page one. It should show research title, name of the author, for what reason, and the month/year of submission.
ii. Declaration page: It is on page two; it spells out you that the work presented is yours and not of others.
iii. Acknowledgement page: It is on page three; the researcher presents his gratitude to all who have contributed in one way or another for him to accomplish his/her research work.
iv. Table of contents page: It is on page four, but if acknowledgement is long and overlaps other pages, it can be on the page after acknowledgement page. It indicates where various topics and sub-topics can be found from the research work.
v. List of tables page: it shows where diagram, photograph, tables or graphs are indicated in the research work.
vi. List of figures page: This shows mathematical or numerical information.
vii. Abstract page: This is a summary of what presented in few words (100-120 words.) it should clearly point out research problem, subjects, instruments/tools used, procedures, basic results and major conclusion.
2. CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
This part present the following components;-
i. Background of the problem This provides essential information from broad to specific about the problem being researched on.
ii. Statement of the problem. It spells out clearly what a researcher set out to investigate.
iii. Objectives of the problem: These are specific indicators of what the study did.
iv. Significance of the study. it spells out the way the study was conducted and what it should do and who should benefit from it.
v. Scope. It indicates the boundary of the study in terms of contents and geography.
vi. Limitations of the study: This sub part show the possible problem that may hinder the successful of the study.
3. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This part is stated in either of the two ways bellow;
i. General reviews. This tries to put out other researches which are directly related to present study. it should base on the variables that will be studied.
ii. Theoretical reviews based on scholars
iii. Empirical review based on specific objectives.
iv. Research gap.
4. CHAPTER THEE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
It states where, by whom, and how the study was conducted. Its major components include;
i. Research design. It specifies how the data will be collected. That is the research methods used.
ii. Study population/subject. These are participants who will be studied. Here a researcher states mode of selection, the number of participants, location, and other demographic characteristics like age and sex.
iii. Methods of data collection/Research Instruments. This part state any tools that will be used to collect data, such as interviews, questionnaires.
Iv. Data analysis. It point out how the researcher will analyse data and what statistical instruments will be used to make sense out of data.
vi. Sample and sampling procedures: This part should show the types of sampling techniques that will be employed.
REFERENCES
References: This includes all studies cited in the present study. It should come immediately after chapter three. It is worldwide accepted to use American psychologist’s association style (APA style).
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1. It provide guidelines to the researchers on how research has to be conducted.
2. It provides foundation for research evaluation.
3. It help to show the scope of the study.
4. It demostrate the strengths and weakness of research methods.
5. It simplify research processes.
PROBLEMS FACING RESEARCHERS ON WRITING RESEARCH REPORT/PROPOSAL
i. Shortage/ inadequate of time.
ii. Poor participation of local people/respondents.
iii. Language problem/barrier.
iv. Poor transport and communication: Some places are very remoteness hence has the physical barrier and problem of transport and communication.
iv. Poor weather conditions such as heavy rain during data collection.
v. Lack of enough capital: due to limited budget.
vi. Low experience of researchers.
PROBLEMS FACING RESEARCH WORK/PROJECTS
1. Shortage/ inadequate of time.
2. Poor participation of local people/respondents.
3. Language problem/barrier.
4. Poor transport and communication: Some places are very remoteness hence has the physical barrier and problem of transport and communication.
5. Poor weather conditions such as heavy rain during data collection.
6. Lack of enough capital: due to limited budget.
7. Low experience of some researchers is another problem.
GUIDING QUESTIONS
1. To what extent the research work is a scientific phenomena? Six points. QN: Briefly, explain six qualities of a good scientific research.
2. Briefly in five points elaborate the rationale of conducting geographical research.
3. Ouline five usefuness of research project.
4. How far research is useful in our today's society? Six points.
5. Give out setbacks of conducting research projects.
6. Research work is the cyclical processes. Discuss.
7. Discuss the systematic processes of the research by giving seven points.
8. Outline five qualities of a good research problem.
9. Describe five consideration before selecting research title.
10.Why do the researchers conduct library research? Six points
11. Briefly explain six attributes of a good literature review.
12. Pointout five importance of conducting library research.
13. Outline five things to be considered by the researcher during literature review.
12. How to check validity of informations from literature review?
13. Give out five criteria of a good research project.
14.: Explain six problems encountered by the researchers during data collection.
