2. EVOLUTION OF MAN, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
Evolution of Man: Is the gradual changes of plants and animals which goes stage by stage from a simple form to a -more complex form. Normally these changes led to existence of plants and animals that are different from the -original plants and animals.
THE THEORY OF ORIGIN OF MAN
The theories of origin of man: Are thoughts which were developed by some people which tries to explain the origin of man by describing the changes that our ancestors underwent until they were become the today's modern man. There are two theories, which attempt to explain the origin of man.
1.THE CREATION THEORY
This theory explains that there is super natural power that creates everything. This super natural power is God. Refer from the Holy Bible and Qur'an e.g. from Biblical knowledge (Genesis chapter 1:26) it says that: - God created man by using soil; at first, they created a man and then later a woman. These two creatures established their relationship and this marked the beginning of human family.
2. THE EVOLUTION THEORY
The evolution theory, is the theory which was proposed by English scientist known as Charles Darwin (1859 –1882). The theory state that " man’s species has been changing gradually from lower stage to better stage due to the influence of the environment".
Changing goes hand in hand with improvement of methods of obtaining food, cloth and shelter. The gradual change of man is called evolution. The first man belongs to the family of primates that included Ape, Gorilla, Monkey and Chimpanzee. These animals lived in the forest walking on four limbs and their bodies covered with hair. Because of environmental changes and diminishing of forests, they started to live in open grassland.
Environment forced them to adopt new way of walking. The forelimbs instead of walking become special for tool making and using. Forelimbs become free from walking. The walking is known as Bi–pedalism.
BI-PEDALISM
Is the stage or process where a man started to walk by using two limbs.
STAGES OF EVOLUTION OF MAN
1. PRIMATES (Ape, Gorilla, Monkey, Chimpanzee)
This was first stage of evolution of man whereby a man in this stage the whole body was covered by hairs. In this stage a man was characterized by low level of technology and low thinking capacity.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMATES
1. Their bodies were covered wit-h lots of hair.
2. They walked on four limbs
3. They lived in dense forest.
4. They had poorly mental abilities.
5. They totally depended on nature e.g. ate raw food
2. AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICAN FAMILY
This stage started about 12 million years ago (B.C) when primates changed to near man. Types of Australopithecus
i. Zinjanthropus
Characteristics of Australopithecus/Zinjathropus
1. A man walked upright.
2. Hind limbs were used for standing and body balance.
3. Man started to design, make and use tools.
4. Man becomes skillful.
ii. Homo habilis
1. He lived between 1,500,000 and 750,000 BC.
2. Homohabilis become more skillful man, because was systematic tools maker.
3. Homohabilis believed to be the direct ancestor of modern man.
4. He had bigger brain and he was more systematic toolmaker.
5. The skull of those creatures was discovered at Olduvai Gorge and in Eastern and Rudolf in Kenya.
3. HOMO ERECTUS
During this stage, man was fully moving upright. He becomes more skillful and systematic tools maker than Homo habilis. Its fossils have been dug up in Olorgesaille and near Lake Turkana in the Kenya, Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
4. HOMO SAPIENS
its characteristics
1. He is a true man of today
2. Has a large brain in size
3. Has less thick jaws
4. He was highly skillful man
5. He made tools by using stones and bones.
NB: Archaeologist Dr. Leakey in Olduvai Gorge has supported the theory of evolution in 1959.
5. HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS
Homo sapiens is a modern man. Homo sapiens are believed to have evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens about 50,000 years ago. This man has a large brain and great intelligence.
NB: the theory of evolution has been supported by Archaeologist: Dr.Leakey in Olduvai Gorge in 1959
THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
1. Development of man’s ability to design, make and use tools.
2. Ability of man to walk on two limbs. (Bi-pedalism)
3. Ability of man to think.
4. Ability of man to domesticate plants and animals.
5. Homo sapiens is a modern man.
6. Homo sapiens is believed to have evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens about 50,000 years ago.
7. This man has a large brain and great intelligence.
DEVELOPMENT OF STONE AGE
Stone Age: This is historical period in which man made and used stone tools. Is a period based on man's economic activities and type of the tools used. e.g., Stone Age, Iron Age, Science technology age etc.
Stone Age is divided into three ages: -
i. Early or Old Stone Age.
ii. Middle Stone Age
iii. Late or new Stone Age
I. THE EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE
This is the first period of Stone Age. It existed between 1,750,000 B.C and 750,000 B.C. Zinjanthropus was the only man existed in this period. The early stone tools were pebbles and chopping. Man used these tools for killing and skinning animal flesh, digging up roots, cutting tree branches, and for defence. Man obtained his food by hunting and gathering. In this period, man had low ability to control his environment.
Types of old stone age tools include: -
i. Oldwan: were the first old stone age tools discovered at Olduvai Gorge. These tools were most used by Zinjanthropus. These instruments were used for skinning animal, digging tree roots, cutting tree branches and clearing bushes.
ii. Acheulian: Were the old stone age tools which were discovered at St. Acheul France. Acheulian were most sharped and simple tools made from breaking very hard rocks through the process called Flaking. Acheulian tools were such as picks, hand axes, cleavers. Acheulian were most applied by Homo Erectus. It was discovered around lake Turkana.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE
In East Africa Stone Age sites are found at Olorgasaille, Nsongezi and Olduvai.
1. Man lived in primitive life depending on nature.
2. Manmade and used crude (poor) tools.
3. Man lived by hunting and gathering.
4. Man ate raw food i.e. meat
5. Man walked up right.
6. Man lived in caves.
7. Man did not wear clothes.
THE EARLY STONE AGE TOOLS
II. THE MIDDLE STONE AGE
This stage covered the period between 750,000BC to 50,000 BC. This period man improved his stone tools. Tools were -smaller, sharper and easier to handle. Tools used during this period were spear, Arrows, Needles, Stone picks, Knives etc. These tools were used for; digging up roots, killing and skinning animals, cuttings & chopping.
THE MIDDLE STONE AGE TOOLS
CHARACTERISTIC OF MIDDLE STONE AGE
1. Man discovered fire.
2. Man developed some religious beliefs.
3. Man started to live complex life.
4. Man’s main occupation were hunting and gathering.
5. Sedentary/ nomadic life
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE
Man, who was scratching pieces of wood using his hands discovered fire. The more he continued scratching, the pieces of wood got heat the smoke come out, the scratch caused friction of scratched wood and led to emission of fire.
How man discovered fire?
Fire was discovered by man who was scratching pieces of wood by using his hands. The more he continued scratching, the pieces of wood got heat then smoke come out, the scratch caused friction of scratched wood and leds to emission of fire.
USES OF FIRE DURING MIDDLE STONE AGE
1. It used by man to provide light at night.
2. It helped a man to warm their bodies.
3. A man used fire to roast his foods.
4. Aman used fire on hunting.
5. Aman used fire to clear forest and bushes.
6. A man used fire for defensive purpose.
MAN'S ANCESTOR MAKING FIRE
IMPORTANCE/EFFECTS OF FIRE TO MAN DURING THE MIDDLE STONE AGE
The following were the effects of discovery of fire to man during the Middle Stone Age
1. It has enabled a man to roast his food (meat).
2. It has enabled a man to live in cold areas.
3. Fire enabled a man to clean environment.
4. Man used fire to provide light at night.
5. Fire it has improved hunting and gathering.
6. It has increased working hours to man.
7. It has improved human security: Man used fire for defensive purpose against dangerous animal like Lion.
2. THE LATE STONE AGE (NEW STONE AGE)
In East Africa, late stone age started from around 50,000 BC to the first millennium AD. In this stage man used better tools compared to the previous stone ages. Tools become more sharper and smaller in size. Tools were stone exes, blades, spears, arrows, etc.
Characteristics of the late stone age
1. Man made and used the better tools compare to the previous ages.
2. Man started to domesticate animals.
3. Man became food producer.
4. Population increased.
5. Man started to live in permanent settlement.
6. Occurrence of division of labour
Example: women become child bearers and cares while man for protecting the families and hunting.
IRON AGE
Iron age: This was the period when man made and used Iron tools. It believed to have started during the first millennium A.D. The discovery and use of iron tools improved man’s standard of living. Iron tools were discovered about 3000 years ago. The first people to make and use iron tools in Africa were the people of Ethiopia and Egypt. Iron skills and knowledge were not uniform or the same in Africa.
Iron tools included iron spears, arrows, Axes, Hoes etc also, Iron technology helped early African societies to produce and use iron tools as well as to produce better weapons for defense.
DIAGRAM OF IRON TOOLS
THE FAMOUS IRON SITES IN AFRICA
The first important towns for iron smelting were: -
1. Meroe in Sudan.
2. Aksum or Axum in Ethiopia.
3. Nsukka, Taruga and Nok area in Nigeria.
4. Tunis in Tunisia.
5. Cairo in Egypt.
IRON SITE IN TANZANIA
i. Engaruka in Arusha.
ii. Uvinza in Kigoma.
iii. Karagwe in Kagera
iv. Ugweno in Kilimanjaro.
v. Buganda.
vi. Limbo in Pwani.
vii. Ntuwa in Ruvuma.
viii. Usambara mountain in Tanga.
ix. Ufipa in Rukwa.
NB: In East Africa, it is believed that man started to use iron from the first millennium (1000) A.D.
EFFECTS/ CONSEQUENCES OF IRON TECHNOLOGY
1. It has led to increase in food production: Due to the improvement of productive forces such as the use of hand hoes etc.
2. Increase in population: Due to availability of food supply
3. Increase in division of labour and specialization: These were Iron workers (black smiths) and food producers.
4. Development of complex political organization:Such as kingdom and states.
5. Improvement of human technology. E.g iron working.
6. It led to the improvement of human security: Due to the use of better weapons like arrows, spears and pangas
7. It led to the development of trading activities: Due to the availability of commodities such as agricultural products and iron tools.
THE MAJOR EARLY IRON CENTRES IN AFRICA
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION /EMERGENCE OF AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA
Neolithic revolution: was the period when a man started to practice agriculture in Africa, this include crops cultivation and animal keeping. Normally the Neolithic revolution was started after the discovery of iron technology since the first millennium 1000 AD. This revolution occurred at the end point of the late stone age and come to iron age period. After the discovery of iron technology, the domestication and crops cultivation (Neolithic revolution) started to emerge. This period had greater changes to man since a man shifted from food gathering to food producer. History tell us that the cradle of agriculture in Africa probably started in Egypt where the societies participated in crop cultivation on the fertile land of Nile valley through irrigation.
Agriculture technology spread to other parts of Africa through migration of people. After the emergence of crops cultivation, a man started to choose some animals for domestication. The first animals to be domesticated by man were dogs, pigs, sheep and goats. There were about four forms of agriculture in pre-colonial Africa which include, permanent agriculture (Chagga, Pare, Baganda, Zulu and oyher societies), mixed agriculture (Sukuma and Nyamwezi), pastoralism (Maasai, Barbaig, Karamajong, Khoisan, Pokot) and shifting agriculture (Zaramo, Makonde, Makua).
FACTORS CONTRIBUTED TO NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION IN AFRICA
Normally factors contributed to the emergence of Neolithic revolution in Africa were the follows: -
1. Improvement of productive forces: Normally the advancement of making and application of better productive forces has led to the emergence of agriculture in Africa. This include application of iron tools like the hand hoes, knives, axes, and ploughs.
2. The discovery of iron: The iron technology has led to the improvement of productive forces which necessitated the introduction of crops cultivation and varieties of animal keeping.
3. Population increase: The population increase has led to high need for food to feed the surplus population. However, the population increase has created the problem of food shortage thing which necessitated the emergence of agriculture in Africa. However, population increase has led to the establishment of permanent settlement which resulted in to emergence of agriculture.
4. Climate Change: The ecological (environmental) changes has led to shortage of food (fruits) supply on the environment especially the drought conditions which hit the society at different period had diminished forests and resulted in to the food shortage and the introduction of agriculture in Africa.
5. Increase in division of labour and specialization: The specialization has brought by population increase among the communities, however these specializations have put societies in to different activities including crops cultivation and animal domestication.
6. Impacts of human curiosity: A man through different experiments has discovered different species which include both animals and crops where a man has put the under his control hence the emergence of agriculture in Africa.
7. The need for security: Due to high desire of man to improve human defence, a man had chosen different animals like dogs for warning signs. Therefore, all these contributed to the emergence of agriculture in African.
IMPACTS OF NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION TO THE AFRICAN SOCIETIES
The Neolithic revolution has led to social-economic changes to African societies which include: -
1. It has led to the establishment of permanent settlement: The introduction of agriculture in different parts of African societies has led to the establishment of permanent settlement among the society which practiced permanent agriculture especially those societies lived along the lakes or areas with sufficient rainfall. Man was assured of enough food availability due to the emergence of crop cultivation and domestication of animal (agriculture). For instance, by 600BC there was settled communities especially along lakes like Lake Edward, Rudolf and Victoria; also, settled communities were evidenced along Nile River.
2. It has contributed to population increase: Agriculture activities has contributed to increase in population since agriculture stimulated high birth rate among the community members fue to availability of enough food supply as well as immigration since some communities were attracted to those agricultural sites hence population increased. Example some parts like Karagwe, Buganda, Zulu land in south Africa and Egypt were highly attracted high population.
3.It increased divisions of labour and specialization: Due to population increase agriculture has stimulated much social differentiation among the communities. The agriculture has made some societies to engage on crops cultivation, other communities engaged on pastoralism, iron working while other communities engaged on trading activities due to the presence of surplus production.
4. Emergence of centralized states: Due to high food availability and population increase the formation of complex political system and state organization become very possible. This political organization was contributed by increase in population increase through migration as the result of agriculture. Example of some states formed as the result of agricultural emergence were such as Buganda kingdom, Egypt empire, Sighai empire just to mention some few.
6. It contributed to surplus production: The introduction of agriculture has led to production increase which resulted in to the emergence of surplus production (extra) food production. However, the surplus production was contributed by the application of simple iroin tools in agriculture.
7. Emergence of trading activities: Trade become possible in this period because of surplus production and population increase which contributed high demanding of some essential human need. Example Long distance trade in East and central Africa as well as long distance trade in north and west African (Tran-Saharan trade).
GUIDING QUESTIONS
1.
What is evolution of man
2.
What are the two theories that try to explain
the origin of man?
3.
Who and when the evolutionary theory was
introduced?
4.
What is Bipedalism?
5.
Mention five stages in the evolution of man
6.
What are the physical features of primates
7.
What is the nickname of Homo-habilis
8.
What is the nickname of Homo-erectus
9.
What is Stone Age?
10.
What are characteristic tools of the Old stone
Age?
11.
What are the collective names of Middle Stone
Age tools?
12.
What do you know about Microlith?
13.
What was man’s ways of life in the early stone
age?
14.
What were the ways used by man to obtain food in
the early stone age?
15.
Explain the consequences of discovery of Fire in
the Middle Stone Age.
16.
Mention the names of two sticks used by man to
make fire during the Middle Stone Age.
17.
What were the changes which occurred in man’s
ways of living in the Late Stone Age?
18.
Mention and explain two theories which try to
explain the discovery of iron
19.
Draw the Map of Africa to show different
pre-colonial iron centres.
20. What were the advantages/significance/consequences or implication of discovery of Iron among pre-colonial African societies.
