What is colonial economy?
Colonial economy: refers to the capitalist economic system based on agriculture, trading, transportation activities, mining industry and manufacturing activities in the colonies. It was the capitalist economy which was established in the colonies. Normally the colonial economy was the system of production of raw materials in the colonies which was introduced by colonialists so as to fulfill their economic benefits.
OBJECTIVES / AIMS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY
The colonial power introduced their economy in Africa so as:-
1. To get reliable raw materials: The colonial powers established their economy in Africa which aimed at ensuring constant supply of raw materials to feed their industries in Europe. These include minerals and agricultural crops like sisal, cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, rubbers, palm oils, etc.
2. To get enough cheap labour: The colonial powers established thir economy in Africa which aimed at getting cheap African labourers by using different methods. Cheap labour were highly needed by that time in order to speed up the rate of production of raw materials.
3. To expand areas for investment: The imperialist powers established their economy in the colonies so as to expand areas for investment of their surplus capital.
4. To generate employment opportunities in the colonies: The colonial economy was introduced in the colonies to create job opportunities for European population.
5. To expand capitalist markets: The colonial powers they established their economy in Africa so as to expand markets for their manufactured or industrial goods.
6. To secure cheap land: The colonial powers they established their economy so that to get more cheap land for production of raw materials in the colonies.
THE CHARACTERISTICS / FEATURES OF COLONIAL ECONOMY
The following were main characteristics of colonial economy in Africa.
1. It was introduced by force: Normally the colonial economy was characterized by coercive apparatus, this include instruments like colonial army, police, prison as well as courts so as to ensure that colonial production run smoothly.
2. It based on construction of physical infrastructures: These include infrastructures such as railways, roads and ports so as to facilitate production as well as transportation activities of products (goods) from the interior of the coast ready to be shipped to the European countries.
3. It was exploitative in nature: normally colonial economy based on the system of exploiting African through land alienation, taxation, forced labour, low wages, long working hours, low prices of African commodities.
4. It was preferred to use migrant labourers: The colonial economy preferred much to work with migrant labourers in different capitalist economic sectors like in plantations, mining sites and in construction activities, this was because migrant labourers were very cheap and reliable.
5. It featured by opening of large plantations in the colonies: these include sisal plantations e.g Tanganyika.
6. It was based on money economy: money was introduced to be used only as a medium of exchange in the colonies, therefore African were forced to use money when they needs for services to European.
7. It featured by establishment of little number of industries: This was the impact of de-industrialization policy introduced by capitalist so as to make African to depend on to Europeans manufactured goods, as well as to reduce competition in the markets over European goods, etc.
8. It was import and export oriented: In a sense that whatever was produced in Africa in a form of cash crops like agricultural crops (cotton, coffee and sisal) and mineral raw – materials were to be transported to Europe in order to feed European hungry industries.
9. It was characterized on Monoculture: most plantations introduced in the colonies based on single crop in order to increase productivity. Example: Sisal in Tanganyika, Coffee in Kenya, Cocoa in Ivory Coast, Palm oil in Nigeria.
METHODS/TACTICS USED TO INTRODUCE/ESTABLISH COLONIAL ECONOMY
Methods/ways/techniques used by colonial powers to impose colonial economy are the same methods used to destroy African pre-colonial economy. Therefore the methods are categorized in to three major factors namely:-
i. Destruction methods.
ii. Preservation methods.
iii. Creation methods.
A. DESTRUCTION METHODS
Destruction methods: Are those techniques which employed to destroy some African economic basic elements seemed to have interference to capitalist economy. The colonialists destructed all former means of Africans indigenous economy which indicated any element of intereference to capitalist economy. Howerver under this technique some methods were employed some of them are:-
1. Killing of local industries: African handcraft industries were destroyed and prohibited so as to avoid commpetion with capitalist industries.
2. Killing of local trade: The African local trade was prohibited and money economy was introduced.
3. Destruction of African culture: Some cutural elements like over growing of food crops was prohibited.
4. Destruction of centralized systems: Some African centralized states seemed to have strong resistances against the colonial government were destroyed and weakened.
5. Importation of manufactured goods: The colonial powers imported much manufactured goods in to the colonies to make sure that Africans had to adopt the use of European goods.
B. CREATION METHODS
Creation methods: Was based much on creating and introducing some economic elements which could not existed in Africa. The colonial government created some of the aspects which were more important for the introduction and establishment of colonial economy, among the things which were created are:-
1. Introduction of money economy: The imperialists introduced money economy in Africa so as to facilitate the exploitation of Africa and Africans. Under money economy taxes were introduced e.g. hut tax, head tax, matiti tax etc. all those taxes were introduced to keep them providing their labour power in the colonial plantations.
2. Creation of physical infrastructures: The colonialists also introduced infrastructure so as to intensify exploitation of African resources through transportation activities. Example: Roads, railways, harbors and electricity supply.
3. Introduction of colonial education: Colonial education was introduced to few Africans so as to get few of them who could assist in administration issues. It also aimed at creating puppets in Africa who could save the interests of capitalist powers.
4. Introduction of cash crops: This was the main aim of colonial economy whereby some cash crops like coffee, tea, cotton and other cash crops were introduced in Africa so as to solve the problem of shortage of raw materials.
5. Introduction of land alienation: African fertile land were alienated and given less fertile land so as to provide the chance to open up plantations and settlers farms.
6. Introduction of different taxes: The colonial government introduced different taxes so as to increase revenue from Africans and to get more cheap labourers. E.g Matiti tax, hut tax, pull tax.
7. Payment of low wages: The colonial powers introduced the system of paying African low wages so as to ensure reliable and constant supply of chap labourers.
8. Creation of labour reserve areas: The colonial government in the colonies created labour reserve areas especially to the unproductive areas to provide labourers to different productive sectors. Example in Tanganyika Germany crated several labour reserve areas from Kigoma, Mpanda, Tabora, Dodoma to provide labour power for sisal plantation in Morogoro and Tanga.
9. Introduction of various laws in the colonies: The colknial governments imposed different laws in the colonies which could facilitate development of colonial economy in different aspects. Example: introduction of Kipande system in Kenya was done so as to get cheap labourers for white settlers.
C. PRESERVATION METHODS
Preservation methods: These are the methods which based on encouraging some pre- colonial African economic elements seemed to have benefits to capitalist economy. The colonialists preserved all things that could support their economies among the things which were preserved include:-
1. The family labour: Family remained as the basic unit of production especially where peasantry economy was practiced.
2. Productive Forces: The means of production like hand hoes, axes, and pangas were left to be used since the colonialists aimed at making Africans backward technologically.
3. Production relations: Some traditional systems like feudal relations were also preserved since they could offer a great support in colonial production e.g. In Uganda feudal relation supported much peasant agriculture.
4. Pre-colonial crops: Some African traditional crops seemed to have value to capitalist economy were much encouraged and promoted. Example: Traditional rubber, cotton and palm oils.
TYPES/ SECTORS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY
There are six (6) types of colonial economy, which were introduced in Africa, and these include.
i. The colonial Agriculture
ii. Trade and commerce
iii. The colonial Mining
iv. The colonial Infrastructure and
v. The colonial industries
vi. The colonial labour force.
A. THE COLONIAL AGRICULTURE
The colonial agriculture: Was a main sector of colonial economy based on production of raw material by means of agricultural products during the colonial era. The agriculture
sector become the backbone of colonial economy because it offered grat opportunities of raw materials in form of cash crops. Example: cotton, coffee, cocoa, rubber, palm oil, and so on.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL AGRICULTURE
1. It was monoculture in nature: To a large extent colonial agriculture especially in plantations and settler farms concentrated much the growing of single kind of crop. E.g Tea, sisal, coffee, rubber, cocoa, etc.
2. The production was mainly for export: The agricultural products produced in the colonies was for export but not otherwise except to a little extent food crops was to be used in the colonies.
3. It was preferred to work with migrant labourers: The colonial agricultural systems like plantations and settler farms preferred much the use of migrant labourers because they were cheap abd reliable.
4. It was exploitative in nature: Normally the agriculture production during the colonial era was not intended to benefit African societies rather than exploiting Africans through payment of taxes, land alienation and payment of low wages.
5. It was commercial based: The colonial agriculture concetrated on growing of cash crops for sale especially settler agriculture and plantation agriculture.
6. It was introduced by force: The colonial agriculture was introduced in the colonies by using force and resulted African societies forced to provide their labour powers to capitalist farms.
7. It featured by creation of physical infrastructures: The colonial agriculture was featured by opening up of feeder roads along the plantation for the aim of facilitating the transportation of raw materials and agriculture implements.
8. It was a backbone of colonial economy: Normally agriculture sector become the backbone of colonial economy because it provided varieties of raw materials.
OBJECTIVES OF COLONIAL AGRICULTURE
The colonial agriculture was introduced for different capitalist objectives such as:-
1. To provide raw materials to feed their industries in Europe.
2. To expand markets for capitalist goods.
3. To provide areas for more investment in the colonies.
4. To exploit African labourers.
5. To provide food supply to feed population in the colonies.
6. To generate employment opportunities in the colonies.
7. To increase government revenue.
FORMS OF COLONIAL AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS
The colonial agriculture has three main branches or forms which were,
i. Peasant agriculture.
ii. Settler agriculture.
iii. Plantation agriculture.
1. PEASANT AGRICULTURE
Peasant: is a person who owns the small piece of land and practice mixed farming.
Peasant agriculture: was the form of colonial agriculture which was introduced in the colonies. Normally the peasant agriculture was established under the guideline of colonial powers. Example of peant agriculture in the colonies include, Uganda, Nigeria, Algeria, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Gambia.
CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF PEASANT AGRICULTURE DURING THE COLONIAL ERA
1. It was small scale form of agriculture
2. It was cheaper than other forms of agriculture because no much investment was incurred.
3. It was based on the production of both cash and food crops.
4. It based on mixed farming: Example cotton and coffee in the same piece of land.
5. Simple tools were used in the production process: These are such as hand hoes, pangas, etc.
6. It characterized by Low quality production: due to lack of good facilities to engage in production in effectively way.
7. It was mainly used family labour.
8. It was established in a areas with dense population.
FACTORS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PESANT AGRICULTURE IN THE COLONIES
There are several factors which favoured peasnt or which contributed to the establishment of pesant agriculture which are:-
1. Peasant agriculture was a cheap: The nature of peasant agriculture was cheap because involved only family labour, small capital and it was easy to manage.
2. Geographical factors: Normally some colonies which were established peasant agriculture were landlocked in nature, hence on this factor those colonies brought difficult on transportation due to the absence of sea transport. Example Uganda is a landlocked country it has no access to seaway something which discouraged the colonial powers to establish settler agriculture.
2. Presence of hot climatic condition: This was another reasons which favoured peasant agriculture in the colonies. The hot climate in different colonies discouraged the whites from settling in such colonies. For instance in Uganda by that time had been hit by malaria, which was a threat to the whites settlement.
3. Existence of strong political organization: Normally some colonies become difficult to establish settler agriculture due to the presence of strong African resistance which caused problem of getting land. Example Uganda there was a strong feudal systems which avoided land alienation to Africans.
4. Presence of dense population: Some colonies characterized by having high population density thing which created land shortage on such colonies. Hence bring difficult to establish settler agriculture on such colonies. Example Uganda had many people at the time when the colonial economies were being established. This is due to the fact that Uganda is geographically small (area 241038km2) .
5. Readiness of the natives: many natives in Africa particular in Ugandan peasant agriculture was highly accepted to some colonies as it opposed to some colonies like Kenya and Tanganyika.
6. Variation of soil fertility: Existence of infertile soils in some colonies created problem of introducing settler agriculture especially in northern Uganda discouraged the establishment of plantation or settlers because of low productively. Normally other forms of agriculture require area with uniform soil fertility, so in Uganda in large extent soil vary in fertility.
7. Profitability of the agricultural system: Normally peasant agriculture was ensured maximum exploitation of peasants since the price of raw materials were fixed by the colonialists and were very low they did not pay wages since there was the application of workers but based on family labourers.
8. The preference of colonial powers: some colonial powers were much interested with peasant agriculture as it was cheaper farming system.
FACTORS FOR INTRODUCTION OF PESANT AGRICULTURE IN UGANDA
1. Peasant agriculture was a cheap: This was due to the fact that peasant agriculture involved only family labour, small capital and it was easy to manage.
2. Geographical factors: Normally Geographically Uganda is landlocked country which created the problem of transportation, hence on this factors contributed to the introduction of peasant agriculture in Uganda.
3. Hot climatic condition: This was another reasons which favoured peasant agriculture in Uganda. The hot climate in Uganda discouraged the whites to establish permanent settlement. For instance in Uganda by that time had been hit by malaria, which was a threat to the whites settlement.
4. Presence of strong centralized feudal states: There was strong African resistance in Buganda and Bunyoro which acted as threats to the colonialists thus in order for the whites to do away with resistances that could be raised by such states they decided to opt for peasantry.
5. Presence of dense population: Uganda had many people at the time when the colonial economies were being established. This is due to the fact that Uganda is geographically small (area 241038km2) compared to Kenya and Tanganyika. Therefore, it could be difficult to practice land alienation in Uganda and establish large agricultural settler farms or plantations in Uganda as the result they opted for peasantry.
5. Readiness of the natives: many Ugandan peasants were strongly accepted peasant agriculture as opposed to Kenya and Tanganyika.
6. Shortage of fertile land: Existence of infertile soils especially in northern Uganda discouraged the establishment of plantation or settlers because of low productively. Normally other forms of agriculture require area with uniform soil fertility, so in Uganda in large extent soil vary in fertility.
7. Impact of Buganda agreement of 1900: This granted land to the Kabaka and his local chiefs who distributed it to the loyal subjects as tenants. In this agreement, they agreed not to take any land for white settlement and introduced a system of private land tenure. This meant that much of the agricultural land of Buganda became the privately- owned estate of the Buganda chiefs and peasantry as their tenant.
8. Profitability of the agricultural system: it maximized exploitation since the price of raw materials were fixed by the colonialists and were very low they did not pay wages since there was the application of workers but based on family labor.
TECHNIQUES/MECHANISMS/METHODS EMPLOYED BY THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PEASANT AGRICULTURE IN THE COLONIES
1. Avoidance of land alienation to peasant residences: The colonial government prohibited land alienation to the peasant residences. This was done to enable Africans to possess land and practice agriculture
2. Introduction of taxation: various types of taxes were introduced to force the Africans to produce cash crops to get money and pay taxes.
3. Provison of agriculture implements: The colonial government provided agriculture implements to the peasant farmers like seeds, fertilizers, working tools, and soft loans. Which aimed at enhance peasant to grow the best cash crops.
4. The use of force: The colonial government sometimes used force to make sure that peasants has to grow cash crops. Example: Destruction of food crops to any peasant who failed to grow cash crops alongside his subsistence. Therefore in respect to this three months imprisonment or sh: 50/= fine or both was set to punish peasants who refused to grow cash crops.
5. Importation of European industrial goods: The colonial government increased the importation of manufactured goods to the places where peasnts were found so as to motivate and enforce African peasants to grow more cash crops to get money and buying European manufactured goods like footwear, clothes, foods, cigarettes, bicycles, torches, radios and other items.
6. Creation of marketing boards and peasant cooperation unions: The colonial government established different makerting boards so as to fix low prices for peasant raw materials. The peasant cooperative unions were formed so as to market and advice the peasant concerning the production of crops.
7. Creation of physical infrastructures: The colonial government constructed physical infrastructures in areas where the peasants were located so as to enable them to transport their raw materials in to the markets. Example roads and railways.
8. Provision of technical skills: The colonial government introduced progressive master farmers to the peasant residences where peasant agriculture were established so as to provide techincal skills to the peasants on how to grow the best cash crops.
IMPACTS OF PEASANT AGRICULTURE IN THE COLONIES
1. It brought famine and hunger: because of over concentration on cash crops and ignoring food production. Colonial government carried out forceful campaign to ensure that every peasant grows some cash crops on his small plot anybody who violated the campaign was punished by destroying his substance food.
2. It led to the development of African nationalistic movement: Through formation of peasant cooperative union which discovered the exploitation of Europeans.
3. It brought classes among the peasants: Based to the capacity of their production. The progressive peasant produced poor and rich peasants.
4. It brought intensive exploitation of African resources: through provision of low prices for their production that led to general underdevelopment. The small number of large European companies did marketing at the coast. They ensure that prices given to the African peasant are kept at the lowest level as possible.
5. Importation of European goods to the colonies: like cloth and metal goods were undermining Africa self-sustaining industries, thus promoting de-industrialization
6. It led to the uneven development between rural and urban: where by some regions which were producing cash crops good development like roads schools medical centre while in regions were cash crop production did not take place such development did not take place.
7. It brought the problem of monoculture: Due to over concentration of growing cash crops resulted in to the emergence of monoculture problem in the colonies.
8. It has integrated African societies in to capitalist economy: Normally peasant agriculture resulted has made African to produce what they do not consumed and they consumed what they produced
2. SETTLERS AGRICULTURE
Settler: is a immigrant person from the abroad who came to invest in the colonies under the support of colonial powers.
Settler agriculture: This was large-scale form of colonial agriculture whereby the European settlers settled in different colonies in Africa and established farming activities. Example of African colonies where settler agriculture was practiced were such Kenya, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Namibia, Mozambique, Angola, Algeria and south Africa.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SETTLERS AGRICULTURE
1. The production was for export: What was produced by the settlers was to be exported to the metro pole, the African economies did not benefit from these large scale of farms.
2. It usually covered large area: The sttler farms occupying more than 100 acres’ of land. E.g. in Zimbabwe the European settlers owned 44,952,000 acres of the best land out of the total 4,900,000 land the 230,000 settlers were able to establish large plantations.
3. It was based on monoculture: Usually each company specialized in the production of a specific commodity e.g. in Liberia rubber plantations were established, in Kenya huge coffee, and tea plantations were established.
4. It needed huge capital: to develop infrastructure, to pay laborers, to construct squatters. The settlers go their capital through government assistance and bank loans at a very low interest rate. As for acquisition of land the state carried out the extensive land expropriation, this land was given to settlers and plantation owners at take away price. (Almost free price).
5. It preferred much the use of migrant labour: The colonial state ensured constant supply of massive unskilled African labor through passing laws that requires the African to provide labor to the settlers like introduction of adult tax to every man or provision of labor in the white farm that is equivalent to the tax.
6. It was exploitative on nature: African land was taken and given to settler farms.
7. It was established along the physical infrastructure: The settler agriculture was much supported by the establishment of physical infrastructures like roads, railways and ports.
8. It was established by foreign immigrants in the colonies.
9. It was not developed in areas with dense population or with hot climate and variation of soil fertility.
10. It was highly supported by the government efforts.
FACTORS FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF SETTLER AGRICULTURE IN THE COLONIES
There are many factors which contributed to the establishment of settler agriculture in the colonies which are:-
1. Good government support: The colonial state played very great role on establishment of settler agriculture in the colonies by ensuring good provision of social services, provision of soft loans, creation of physical infrastructures, ensuring security to the settles, ensuring availability of cheap labour, as well as ensuring availability or enough fertile land.
2. Existence of good climatic condition: Some colonies were endowed with good climatic condition especially cool climate which were very potential for attracting which settlers to establish permanent settlement in such colonies. To a large extent white settlers were favoured by cool climate. Example Kenya highlands which had cool humidity climate which favoured the European to settle in Kenya without any problem. Was unlike Tanganyika and Uganda, Kenya had cool climatic condition which was encouraged more white settlers to settle and establish their farms.
3. Existence of good fertile lands: The settler agriculture was highly suited to the colonies blessed with uniform soil fertility which favoured large commercial agriculture whereby Europeans settlers were able to maximize the production of raw materials.
4. Presence of weak traditional political system: Normally settler agriculture was covered large scale which usually needed enough enough empty land, but the settler agriculture was possible to the colonies with weak communities which do not avoid
land alienation. Example Kenya did not have strong political system that would resist land alienation from the Europeans unlike other parts of east Africa like Buganda which had dense population with highly centralized leadership of Kabaka.
5. Existence of enough labour force: There was enough supply of cheap labour to some colonies which facilitated the establishment of settler agriculture, the cheap labour become very potential to work to settler's farms since they were paid low wages and ensure maximum profits to white settlers. In some colonies there was enough labour reserves which were created to serve and produce migrant labour. Example in Kenya The colonial government introduced legislations like the master and servant act of 1906, which asked African to sell their labour force for 90 days per year for 3 rupees as a wage per month.
6. Absence of tropical diseases: Some colonies with no tropical diseases like Malaria, cholera and other diseases were always attracted white settlers to settle in such colonies. The absence tropical diseases like malaria was due the presence of cool climate. Example Kenya high lands. Was unlike other areas like southern Tanganyika, Uganda and Burundi. Hence this factor was attraced many white settlers to settle and establish ther farming.
7. The nature of crops: Some crops like tea and coffee need areas with cool climate because thses crops was highly discouraged by hot climatic condition. Hence the establishment of settler agriculture in some colonies.
8. Availability of enough empty land: Normally settler agriculture was covered large scale which usually needed enough enough empty land hence it was limited by colonies with high population density. Example Kenya was endowed with enough land which encouraged the establishment of large scale farms, this was because some areas in Kenya were sparsely populated that enabled the colonialist to acquire big chunk of land for large plantation un like in Uganda and some parts of Tanganyika.
9. Absent of strong African resistance: Normally settler agriculture become imposible to the colonies with strong resistance uring the establishment of colonial rule.
Therefore it become possible to those colonies with low resistance because this ensured absence of violence and riots, which could destroy the plantations and tools.
METHOS/TECHNIQUES USED BY COLONIAL STATE TO THE ESTABLISH SETTLER AGRICULTURE IN THE COLONIES
1. Availability of land: The colonial state ensured availability of enough fertile land to the settlers. For example the colonial state in Kenya passed land Acts in Kenya which strictly prohibited Kenyans from procuring land, which was potentially, preserved for the white settlers i.e. the crown land Act.
2. It has ensured constant supply of cheap labour to settler farms: The colonial government was ensure enough supply of cheap labour to settler farms. In Kenya this was done by passing legislation laws for example the master and servants native Act of 1906 in Kenya which made Kenyans to provide their labour power in the colonial settler farms, the crown land Act of 1915 in Kenya and the Kipande system which increased the number of days from 90 to 180 days for Kenyans to work in settler farms per annum.
3. Provision of soft loans to the settlers: The colonial states in the colonies provided soft loans to settlers with little return so as to boost their capital, urthermore they were given subsides as a means of encouraging them to expand their agricultural activities in large scale.
4. They ensured security to the settlers: The colonial state was ensured peace and securty to make sure that settlers in the colonies are protected agains any African resistances.
5. Provision of marketing freedom: Settlers in the colonies they had given authority to fix the prices of ther products without any interference by capitalist powers. Moreover they had given right to form organizations in the colonies which will help them defended and protected their interests.
6. Settlers were given authority to grow cash crops: Normally settlers were only allowed to grow cash crops, however in doing so the colonial government prohibited African from growing of cash crops. This was meant to avoid competition between Africans against the Europeans in terms of production.
7. Construction of physical infrastructures: The colonial state in the colonies ensured reliable infrastructures (Transport and communication) which aimed at helping settlers to facilitate the movement of their agricultural products in the colonies. For example the Mombasa-Kisumu railway was constructed in 1895, the Nairobi –Thika line in 1918.
8. Through provision of better social services: The colonial state ensures better social services to the settlers so as to attract more European ivestment in the colonies. Settlers were favoured with better social services such as water supply, electricity supply, better houses, health services, reliable transport, hotels, recreational centers and clubs than Africans.
9. Through excluding settlers from paying taxes: The colonial state exempted the settlers from paying taxes as a result, the burden fell on Africans who were heavily taxed, and for example, Africans were obliged to pay some notorious tax structures such as matiti tax in Kenya.
10. Settlers they had given political rights in the colonies: The colonial government in some colonies had provided political rights to the white settlers to have mandate to involve in administration affairs in the colonies, like to involve in legislature to discuss their interests and in some colonies settlers were given freedom to declare their own independence.
Example in southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) settlers they had declared their own independence called Unilateral Declaration Independence (UDI) by the 1961 under the leadership of Man Douglas Smith.
FACTORS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SETTLER AGRICULTURE IN KENYA
The establishment of settler agriculture in Kenya started of gicially after the construction and completion of the Kenya-Uganda railway by 1902. Therefore like other colonies estblished settler economy, the main reasons behind the establishment of settler agriculture in Kenya were:-
1. Existence of good climatic condition: Kenya highlands had cool humidity climate which favored the European to settle in Kenya without any problem. Was unlike Tanganyika and Uganda, Kenya had cool climatic condition which was encouraged more white settlers to settle and establish their farms.
2. Existence of good fertile lands: There was uniform soil fertility which favoured large commercial agriculture whereby Europeans settlers were able to maximize the production of raw materials due to such factors the influx of settlers in Kenya was high.
3. Presence of weak traditional political system: Kenya did not have strong political system that would resist land alienation from the Europeans unlike other parts of east Africa like Buganda which had dense population with highly centralized leadership of Kabaka.
4. Availability of enough labour force: There was enough supply of cheap labour to work in the settler's In Kenya, There was enough labour reserves which were created to serve and produce migrant labour. The colonial government introduced legislations like the master and servant act of 1906, which asked African to sell their labour force for 90 days per year for 3 rupees as a wage per month.
5. Absence of tropical diseases: There was absence tropical diseases like malaria due the presence of cool climate in the high lands of Kenya as compared to other areas like southern Tanganyika, Uganda and Burundi. Hence this factor was attracted many white settlers to settle and establish their farming.
6. The political set up of Kenya during colonialism: Kenya was a crown colony and not a protectorate like in Uganda and Tanganyika so the white settlers were ensured permanent stay in Kenya.
7. Availability of enough empty land: Kenya was endowed with enough land which encouraged the establishment of large scale farms, this was because some areas in Kenya were sparsely populated that enabled the colonialist to acquire big chunk of land for large plantation un like in Uganda and some parts of Tanganyika.
8. Presence of weak resistance: During the establishment of colonial rule, this ensured absence of violence and riots, which could destroy the plantations and tools.
9. Good government support: The colonial state played a great role on establishment of settler agriculture in by ensuring good provision of social services, provision of soft loans, creation of physical infrastructures, ensuring security to the settles, ensuring availability of cheap labour, as well as ensuring availability or enough fertile land.
THE IMPACTS /EFFECTS OF SETTLER ECONOMY IN THE COLONIES
1. It brought land alienation: It led to severe land alienation simply because; Africans were forced out of their fertile land so as to give room for the settler economy to be developed (established).
2. It brought intensive exploitations of African resources: in a sense that Africans were forced to work under settler farms for long hours but received very low pay that could not match with the task (work) they performed.
3. It led to the establishment of different laws in the colonies: good example is in Kenya that of 1915, which forced Africans to surrender (leave) their fertile land to settlers, other law was that of 1906 and 1921, which forced Africans to work to settler farms for about of and 180 days respectively.
4. It stimulated African strong resistance : which aimed at regaining other lost freedom Good example is Mau Mau war that erupted in 1950’s in Kenya, shona and Ndebele in Zimbabwe from 1896 – 1897.
5. It encouraged un-even development in the colonies: in a sense that, areas that were occupied by white settlers were more favored by the colonial. State in terms of provision of social services compared to those area s where settlers were not do ruin ant.
6. Loss of Africans freedom: as they came to be under the control of the white settlers in which they had no freedom at all in social political as well as economic as all matters (affairs) had to be decided by the whites.
7. Integration of African in to capitalist system: African become producers of what they don’t consume and they consume what they don’t produce.
3. PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
Plantation agriculture: Was the large scale colonial agriculture based on monoculture established in the colonies under the supervision of colonial government. It was owned by either the colonial governments (states) or by the capitalists from the abroad. Example of some African colonies where plantation agricuture were established includes, Zaire (Congo), Tanganyika (Sisal), Ivory Coast (coffee), Gabon (Rubber), Madagascar (Sugarcane and coffee), Sudan (cotton), Egypt (cotton) and Cameroon (Rubber).
FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTATIONS AGRICULTURE
1. It was based on large-scale plantation: It was usually covered large areas for instance 100 acres, and beyond.
2. It was normally owned by colonial government Plantation agriculture to a large extent was established and owned by colonial state for example Germany used the Jumbes and Akidas to supervise the production process in the sisal plantations in
Tanga and Morogoro regions in Tanganyika.
3. It was monoculture in nature: It specialized on growing single type of crops. Example Cotton and sisal were grown in the given plantations.
4. It normally required huge capital: For establishment physical infrastructures were put in place in order to facilitate the transportation of the crops from the interior where they were shipped after being produced to the coast: for example in Tanganyika, the railways lines run from the interior to the coast.
5. This system introduced by force: especially when it came on searching for labor, forced was applied and migrate labor were humiliated with poor payment and long working labours, taxation. for instance the Germans employed the Jumbes and Akidas and German askaris to supervise the corporal punishment, furthermore, the labour recruiting agency was established Exaple: SILABU (the Sisal Labor Bureau).
6. It based on mechanization: Plantations were scientifically managed and involved the application of heavy machines as to produce high production like the use of tractor.
7. It was linked with the establishment of infrastructure: especially roads to ensure smooth transportation of products to the required places especially to the coast were they were to be exported in Europe, that’s why in the colonial Tanganyika all roads and tracks were running down to the coast.
8. It preferred much to work with migrant labourers: Normally plantation agricuture preferred the use of immigrant labour that included forced labour and indentured laborers attended most of the plantations.
FACTORS FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF PLANTATION AGRICULTURE IN THE COLONIES
1. Presence of harsh climatic conditions: Plantation agricuture was estabished much in tropical areas with hot which supported crops varieties. Example tropical climate
supported sisal, equatorial climate supported rubber and tea production. Therefore on such colonies settlers discourage to establish settlement.
2. The availability of vastness land: This has encouraged much the establishment of plantations agriculture since it was practiced in large areas for instance plantation agricultural system was highly preferred In Tanganyika to other East African colonies because of the vastness of its area, for example; Tanganyika covers the area of 945,090km2 while the other East African countries cover 580,36km2 (Kenya) 241,038 km2 (Uganda).
3. To expand capitalist markets: Plantation agriculture was established in Africa to act as the main source of market for the European manufactured goods especially in the plantations whereby the migrant labourers bought such goods for example clothes, radios, alcohol, chocolate cigars so on.
4. Existence of tropical diseases: Some colonies characterized by having tropical diseases like maralia, small pox, jiggers which was not favoring the settlement of Europeans become difficult which resuted discouraged settlers’ and thus they opted for plantation agriculture.
5. The presence of scattered fertile land in the colonies: Variation in soil fertility whereby settlers agriculture could not be effective to such areas. Example. in parts of Tanganyika some areas possessed good soils while others not.
6. Availability of enough cheap labour: Cheap labourers were highly available in some colonies like Tanganyika hence encouraged the establishment of plantation agriculture especially the migrant labours because were economically cheap and easily exploited because were unskilled and paid low wages.
7. Availability of enough capital: The presence of enough capital among the capitalist powers encouraged the establishment of plantation agriculture since it was needed enough capital for buying farming implents like fertilizer, tractors and paying labourers.
8. It was very profitable: it was served the interest of the colonial government of maximizing profit and minimizing the coast by providing low wages to the laborers and the taxing them. The colonial policy of divide and rule supported plantation agriculture whereby some Africans who were made inferior to provide cheap labor while others were administrators for plantation. Also it depended on colonial master’s policy e.g. Britain preferred settlers and peasant agriculture while Portugal and France preferred plantations and settler’s agriculture.
TECHNIQUES USED BY COLONIAL POWERS TO ESTABLISH PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
1. Introduction of land alienation: The colonial government grabbed African land to ensured availability of enough fertile land for the establishment of plantation agriculture.
2. Introduction of taxation: Various taxes were introduced in the colonies so as to force African to provide their labour power to workto the government farms so as to get money for paying txase. Example hut tax, pull tax, head taxes and matiti tax in Kenya.
3. By use of force: Normally plantation agriculture in Africa was not smoothly accepted by African natives but was largely strong resisted, hence by doing so the colonial government employed force to those African refused to surrender their land. Therefore due to the use of force resulted in to the outbreak of many African resistance. Example Majimaji war in Tanganyika in 1905 -1907.
4. Introduction of money economy: The colonial government introduced money to be the medium of exchange in the colonies by prohibiting African local trade. Therefore African were supposed to use money when once wanted to be served by different colonial services. This was introduced so as to enforce Africans to provide more their labour power to the colonial estates so as to get money for buying services.
5. Prohibiting African from growing cash crops: Normally with respect to capitalist interests, the colonial government was prohibited African from growing cash crops so as to avoid interference to capitalist economy. African were only allowed to grow food crops.
6. Formation of labour reserve areas: Normally the colonial powers in the colonies created labour zotnes especially to the most unproductive areas so as to ensure constant supply of cheap labour to capitalist farms. Example Germany in Tanganyika created labour reserves to unproductive regions like Kigoma, Mpanda, Tabora, shinyanga and Dodoma to provide labour power for sisal plantation in Tanga and Morogoro.
7. Creation of physical infrastructures: The colonial government ensured the creation of different physical infrastructures along the plantation like railway and roads so as to facilitate the transportation activities in the colonies, this include transportation of raw materials from the interiors to the coast.
8. Importaion of manufactured goods in the colonies: The colonial powers they decided to increase the importation of manufactured goods in to the colonies so as to attract and encourage more African to work to capitalist farms so as to get money for buying manufactured goods.
IMPACTS OF PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
1. It has contributed to under development in Africa: Africans under development due to high explotation through the provision cheap labor and paid low wages and on top of that, they worked for long working hours, this brought vicious poverty in Africa.
2. It has led to the development of trading centers: Those places located near the plantations were acted as the trading centres hence development of trading centres.
3. It contributed to unven development in the colonies: Those places established plantation agriculture were highly favouklred by colonial powers with various sevices hence were developed much.
4. It has led to the occurrence of famine and hunger: Because of over concetration of cash crops than food crops hence shortage in the supply of food in the colonies.
5. It has led the introduction of cash crops in the colonies: Plantation agriculture in the colonies contributed to the introduction of different cash crops in the colonies. coffee, sisal, cotton, rubber, cocoa, and tea.
6. It brought intensive exploitation: Plantation agriculture has led to the intensive exploitation of African societies due to payment of low wages, land alienation, forced labour, long working hours and introduction of various heavy taxes.
7. It has contributed to the outbreak of many African resistance: Normally due yo the application of land alienation, plantation agriculture contributed to the occurrence of many African resistance since African were wanted to protect their land.
FACTORS DETERMINED THE INTRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF AGRICULTURE IN THE COLONIES
1. Population density: Normally to those colonies characterized by high population density become difficut to have enough empty land hence those place contributed to the establishment of peasant agriculture due to shortage of land example Uganda and Nigeria. But for those colonies with low population density become possible to provide cheap land example Tanganyika hence contributed to the establishment of plantation and settler agriculture.
2. The nature of political organization: Some colonies during the colonila penetration seem to ha strong centralized kingdoms with very strong african restance, hence to those colonies the colonial powers were preferred to establish peasant agriculture than settler agriculture because the centralized States posed strong resistance and become
difficult to practice the so called land alienation. Example Buganda kingdom under Kabaka by that time was very powerful kingdom hence threatened British, but to those colonies with weak political organization became easy to practice land alienation which resulted in to establishment of plantation and settler agriculture.
3. The interests of colonia powers: During the establishment of colonial economy some colonial powers preferred a certain agriculture in dfferent colonies, especially British colonial powers preferred peasant agriculture. For example, Governor Harry John stone of Uganda and Governors Horrace, Byatt and Sir Donald Cameroon of Tanganyika preferred peasant agriculture.
4. Territorial and nationality problems: Some colonies during the time of establishment of colonial ecomy were dominated by territorial problem which occurred since the time of establishment of colonial rule. Example Tanganyika before 1919 was ruled by Germans, but after the First World War, it was ruled by the British. Disagreements appeared regarding various issues of administration and the creation of a settler colony. Thus peasant agriculture dominated in many parts of Tanganyika.
5. Labour availability: To those colonies colonies with many cheap labourers become possible and were established settler or plantations. Example Tanganyika and Kenya. But to those colonies which seemed to have shortage of labour supply become difficult to establish plantation or settler agriculture hence those colonies were established peasant agriculture.
6. Nature of the crops: Some crops such as cotton, coffee and cocoa needed great care and and cool climate could not be mixed easily with other systems of agriculture while sisal and rubber needed areas with hot climate.. Further more some crops need specific type of climate and soil fertile, hence some agricultural system was established in the colonies after the failure of other system.
7. The nature of climate: Some area were thought to be unfit for the European settlement as far as climate condition was concerned. The notable examples are Nigeria and Uganda in these areas, peasant agriculture was encouraged because of
having g hot climatic condition which discouraged White men settlement. However the white settlers become more more interested to the colonies with cool climate. Example Kenya highland.
8. The nature of soil fertility: Some agricutural systems needed soil with uniform soil fertility and other characteristics, hence some soils variation in soil fertility favoured plantation and peasnt agriculture to cultivate different crops. Example Tanganyika and Uganda.
9. Readiness of native: Normally the establishment of different systems of colonial agriculture were also sometimes reflected by the acceptance of African societies but was not always. Normally some agricultural system covered large area and were accompanied by land alienation thing which discouraged by African natives especially settlers and plantations agriculture but some agricultural systems coved small areas as far as showed some benefits to African side especially peasant which involved mixed farming where African were to cultivate both food crops and cash crops. Example peasant agriculture was highly accepted in Uganda.
SIGNIFICANCE OF AGRICULTURE TO THE COLONIAL ECONOMY
Significance of agriculture in colonial economy within African colonies may be seen from the advantages which colonialists got after the establishment of agriculture and to less extent Africans also benefited.
1. It provided variety of raw materials: such as (cotton, tea, sisal, Pyrethrum, cocoa.etc) that were needed in their capitalists industries for more development.
2. It expanded markets for European manufactured goods such as Agricultural tools.
3. It destroyed African technology in order to avoid competition with African technology.
4. It facilitated exploitation of African resources: for the benefit of European capitalist, resources being both human and natural resources.
5. It stimulated the development of industries in Europe: because industries operated nicely because of enough availability of raw materials.
6. It has facilitated transportation of raw materials and goods in the colonies: Through creation of physical infrastructures such roada and services.
7. It has generated employment opportunities to European population.
8. It has stimulated high income to colonial government.
9. It has contributed to the availability of other sectors like infrastructure, industries and financial institutions.
IMPACTS OF COLONIAL AGRICULTURE
The colonial agriculture contributed to both positive and negative impacts in the colonies
POSITIVE IMPACTS
1. It has led to the availability of varieties of raw materials in the colonies.
2. Introduction of new cash crops like Cotton, sisal, coffee and rubber.
3. It has contributed to the availability of food supply, due to introduction of food crops.
4. It contributed to capital investment. After the independence
5. It has led to the growth of markets and trading centres.
6. It has generated employment opportunities in the colonies to both African and European.
7. It has contributed to the availability of other sectors like infrastructure, industries and financial institutions.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
1. It has contributed to the formation of social classes among the African societies. The colonial agriculture has produced both rich and poor class.
2. It has contributed to under developed due to intensive exploitation.
3. It has contributed to intensive exploitation of African resources.
4. It brought poverty, due to intensive exploitation.
5. It brought famine and hunger, due to high emphasis on growing of cash crops than the food crops.
6. It has led to destruction of African culture, due to importation of European goods in the colonies.
7. It has encouraged uneven development in the colonies. Caused by different in priorities of colonial powers in the colonies and migrant labour system.
B: COLONIAL LABOUR FORCE
Colonial labour: Were the Africans used their mental and physical strength to work to the various capitalist economic sectors. Normally labour sector continued to be the backbone of capitalist production because most of the problems faced the capitalists since the establishment of their economy was the the shortage of labour supply.
Types of colonial labourers
The capitalists used various types of African labour such as:-
i. Migrant labour. (Both territorial and interterritorial migrant labourers)
ii. Squatters labour
iii. Daily/peasnt labour.
FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL LABOUR
1. They were paid low wages and salaries: which were not proportional to what they produced.
2. Poor working and living conditions. They lived in overcrowded camps with no important services e.g. water, electricity, telephone and so on.
3. Colonial labourers remained technologically backwardness: so as to avoid competition with the whites.
4. They treated harsh: Worse enough this group of labor had no insurance, the colonial government considered the laborers as fools of producing profit for them. Low wages were given to them so that they could survive.
5. They worked for long hours: and they were not paid overtime or any relief.
6. They were also oppressed, exploited, humiliated and discriminated in their own motherland this made them to remain poor.
TECHNIQUES/METHODS USED BY COLONIAL GOVERNMENT TO INCREASE LABOUR POWER IN THE COLONIES
The methods which were employed by colonial powers to ensure availability of enough labour supply in different capitalist sectors were categorized in to:-
i. Direct methods
ii. Indirect methods.
A). DIRECT METHODS/TECHNIQUES
1. Construction of infrastructures in the colonies: There was introduction of railway harbor and parts were constructed and rehabilitation in African colonies from the coastal areas to the interior where African laborers and producers of raw materials were found or lived.
2. Improvement of working condition: The colonial powers improved working condition of labourers in the colonies on different working sectors. This was done by the colonialists in order to motivate African laborers to move in mining and plantation areas to offer their labor power. This ensured a constant supply of migrant labor. For example, there was improvement of wage labor, provision of social services, shortening working hours.
3. Introduction of labour recruiting agencies in the colonies: This was done in order to ensure a constant supply of labor in the colonies for agricultural production of raw materials, mining production and construction of infrastructure system like roads, ports and harbours. For example we had WENELA in central Africa which recruited African labor from southern Rhodesia to South Africa in order to ensure labour power and Sisial Labour bureau in (SILABU) Tanganyika.
4. The use of local chiefs: African Local rulers were required to recruit a specific number of laborers in their areas of control per annum. This mechanism enabled the colonizer to utilize full African labor for advantage of European colonialist in their plantation and mines and other economic sectors.
5. Introduction of different laws in the colonies: The colonialists enacted different labour laws which forced Africans to get involved in production of raw materials needed by the colonialist in their countries for their development. Example introduction of Kipande system in Kenya.
6. Introduction of contract system: The colonial government had introduced contract system where African migrant labourers were supposed to work for contract of almost six months to two years. The government aimed at ensured high production.
7. By using force: Normally sometimes the colonial government employed force to capture African to provide their labour power to capitalist economy without Willings.
8. Creation of labour reserve areas: The colonial government created different labour zones so as to ensures constant supply of cheap labourers. However most labour reserve areas were established in areas which were unproductive in nature. Example in Tanganyika British created many labour reserve regions like Tabora, Dodoma, Kigoma, Shinyanga, Mpanda and Singida.
B). INDIRECT METHODS/TECHNIQUES
1. Introduction of taxation: where the colonialists introduced different taxes in African colonies in order to force Africans to offer their labor power in European plantation, mines and other economic sector e.g. different taxes as it was in Kenya; there was Matiti, head, property, taxes etc. forced Africans to offer their labor power in settler economy.
2. Introduction of land alienation: where by Africans were alienated from their fertile land and pushed to unproductive areas in order to make Africans to continue offering their labor power in plantations, mining.
3. Improvement of social services: The colonial government had improved good provision odmf social services in the migrant labourers sites like housing services, water supply, electricity, health services and education service so as to increase the number of skilled labourers. This aimed at attracting more labourers both skilled and semiskilled labourers.
4. Importation of European manufactured goods: The colonial government had ensured importation of various manufactured goods in to the colonies so as to attract more African to provide their labour powers to capitalist so as to get money to buy the European manufactured goods. Example clothes, shoes, bicycles, torches, radios and foods.
5. Introduction of money economy: The colonial government had improved money to be the medium of exchange in the colonies and abolition of batter system. The aim was to force Africans to work to capitalist economy to get money to buy different services in the colonies. Hence availability of enough labour power.
THE MIGRANT LABOURERS
Mgrant labourers: were the form of colonial Labourers who transported from the distant areas to work in different capitalist economic sectors. Normally migrant labourers were much employed by the colonialists to work in different productive sectors such as in mining sites, agriculture, industries and in construction activities.
Types of migrant labour
ii. Intra territorial - From on are to another area but within the colony. Example movement of labour from Kigoma, Shinyanga, Tabora, Dodoma and Singida to Morogoro, Tanga and Kilimanjaro in Tanganyika.
ii. External (Inter-Territorial) migrant labourers: These were the form of migrant labourers who transported from one colony to another colony. Example from Sudan to Tanganyika.
Migrant labourers were categorized in two types
i. Internal (Territorial) migrant labourers: These were the form of migrant labourers who transported from one region to another region.
Migrant labourers were much preferred by the colonialists to work in different productive sectors like in mining sites, agriculture, industries and in construction activities due to the following reasons:-
1. Migrant Laborers were very cheap: Most migrant labourers were cheap because they were easy to be managed since they lived in the camps as well as they paid very low wages and salaries.
2. Migrant Labourers caused disunity among themselves: This was because migrant laborers they come from the different places and they used different languages. Therefore they were not easy to form unity to resists against the colonialists.
3. They expanded capitalist markets: Because migrant labourers they become a source of Market for European manufactured goods. In this case they supposed to work in the colonial plantations and mines to get money which they expected to spent it in buying needs like shoes, Blankets, and clothes which were made from Europe.
4. Migrant labourers were reliable: Normally due to the fact that most migrant laboureres were unskilled in nature it become difficult for them to escape from their working place because they do not familiar since some of them they coming from very far areas therefore this situation ensured constant supply of their laborers.
5. They avoided African resistance: This was because most migrant labourers they coming from different places or colonies and moreover most migrant laboureres spoken different language hence in this way they helped to reduce resistance because of disunity.
6. They worked by contracts: migrant labourers they forced to work by contract, hence through this they ensured constant supply of man power.
7. They increased government revenues: Migrant labourers were highly preferred by colonial powers because they contributed to increase in government revenue through tax collection.
IMPACTS OF MIGRANT LABOUR IN THE COLONIES
Migrant labour system brought number of consequences in the colonies in both positive and negative aspects such as follows:-
1. Separation of families: The system contributed to the displacement of African families.
2. Depopulation: The system caused depopulation in some parts of the colonies especially those areas where laboureres were coming from. Example Kigoma, Tabora, Dodoma, etc.
3. Growth of towns in the colonies: The migrant labour system contributed to growth of towns in the colonies to population increase. Example Tanga, Morogoro, Kilimanjaro etc.
4. Emergence of working class movement in Africa: The migrant labour system resulted in to the emergence of working class movement especially after the second world war where colonial exploitation was intensified. E g labour cooperative unions, trade unions, etc.
5. Intensive exploitation of African resources: The system posed much high exploitation of African resources through tax payment, land alienation, payment of low wages and long working hours.
6. Destruction of African culture: Due to separation of families caused some people to loss their originality like language.
7. It contributed to famine and hunger in some areas: Due to shirtage of labourers in some places where labourers were taken.
8. Emergence of social classes: The migrant labourers contributed to the emergence of social classes which include skilled labour and unskelled labour, poor and rich.
C. COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURES/TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
Colonial infrastructures: Were the colonial transport and communication systems established by colonialists in African colonies during colonial period in order to meet their interests (demand). These infrastructures include colonial railway, ports, airports, harbors and telecommunication networks. Therefore most colonial infrastructures after the second world war were improved in order to facilitate transportation activities in the colonies.
THE COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURES (TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION SYTEM)
Transport: is the movement of goods and services from one place to another. Example colonial goods are such as manufactured goods, raw materials such as minerals, cotton, coffee. Etc. Services are such as education, religion, etc.
Communication: refers to the transmission of information from one place to another place.
Colonial infrastructures: was the colonial transport and communication systems that were introduced by colonial state or government so as to facilitate transportation activities in the colonies. Normally the colonial infrastructure included roads, railways harbors and air portsetc. The colonial infrastructures were also established in Africa.
The colonial infrastructures were roads, railways, ports, harbors and airports. Examples are central railway line from Dar es Salaam to Kigoma via Tabora to Mpanda and Dar es Salaam to Tanga.
The Germans firstly built Tanga line in 1893, and reached Mombo in 1905, it was later extended to Moshi in 1912, where it served the settlers in Usambara and plantations owners and African peasants in Kilimanjaro. They also constructed the central line from Dar es Salaam to Morogoro in 1907, and reached Tabora in 1912 and Kigoma in 1914.
It was 1928 after WWI when it was extended from Tabora to Mwanza. Other railways was in Kenya – Uganda made by British, it started at Mombasa in 1896 and reached Nairobi in 1898. It was in 1928 when it was extended to Jinja and Kampala.
Types of colonial infrastructure (transport and communication)
1. Roads.
2. Railways.
3. Habours.
4. Telephone graphs.
5. Air ports.
THE NATURE AND PETTERN OF COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURES
1. There was no international infrastructures: unless otherwise if the colonies were colonized by one colonial power e.g. Kenya and Uganda under British.
2. The colonialists failed to built roads for the aim of only serving Africans.
3. The nature of railway and roads in the colonies were short in length.
4. They were unevenly distributed: most of colonial infrastructures were concentrated only to the productive areas such as mines, agriculture, labor reserves, etc.
5. They were exploitative in nature: Aimed at exploiting African resources through transportation system.
6. They based on racism: The electrical supply, good roads, postal services and telephone graphs were established to colonial officials and setters residences.
7. Most roads were seasonally: some roads especially dry weathered roads they become visible during the dry season only but during the rain season become unacceptable.
8. Most colonial roads and railway lines were running perpendicular from the coast to the interiors. This was determined by the demanding for construction.
FUNCTIONS/OBJECTIVES/REASONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION INFRASTRUCTURES IN THE COLONIES
1. To transport raw materials from the interiors to the coast: The colonial powers constructed infrastructures so as to transport raw materials from the interior to the coast for easy export to Europe for manufacturing. various raw – materials such as cotton, sisal, tobacco were transported from the interior to coast for easy shipment to Europe.
2. To transport migrant labourers: The colonial infrastructures were constructed to transoort migrant labourers from labour reserve areas to different productive areas. Example in Tanganyika lobour could transported from Kigoma, Tabora, Dodoma to , Morigoro and Tanga.
3. To transport colonial officials: The colonial officials were transported from one place to another for supervising colonial economic projects, which were established along the coast.
4. To transport European manufactured goods from the coast to the interior: The colonial infrastructures were constructed to transport manufactured goods from the coast to the interiors where the consumers were found for marketing.
5. To transport troops or soldiers from one place to another: The colonial infrastructures especially roads and railways were constructed to transport colonial troops for the aim of defending peace in the colonies by suppressing African resistances.
6. To transport missionaries from one place to another: Aimed to enable missionaries to continue with converting African through spreading Christianity as they were colonial agents.
7. To facilitate the colonial exploitation: The colonial transport and communication systems like roads and railways were made to facilitate maximum exploitation of Africans resources through transportation activities in the colonies.
8. To link and open African colonies: Most colonial roada and railways were bult to link the colonies especially those colonies colonized by one colonial master. Example Kenya and Uganda.
IMPORTANCE/SIGNIFICANCE OF COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURES TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL ECONOMY
1. They had facilitated the transportation of migrant labourers from the reserve areas to the different capitalist production sites. Example from Kigoma, Mpanda and Tabora to work in Morogoro and Tanga in sisal plantations.
2. They had facilitated the movement of colonial administrators in different parts of the colonies.
3. They had facilitated the movement of colonial officials from the abroad/Europe to Africa colonies.
4. They had facilitated the transportation of manufactured goods from Europe to African colonies where the consumers were founds.
5. They helped in the transportation of equipments like machinery parts from Europe to African for further investment in the colonies.
6. They enabled the transportation of colonial troops from one place to another place in the colonies for supervising peace and security in the colonies.
7. They had facilitated transportation of raw materials from the interiors to the coast, then from the coast to Europe for manufacturing processes where heavy industries were found.
8. They expanded capitalist markets through different infrastructure services established in the colonies like postal services.
EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF COLONIAL INFRASTRUCTURES IN THE COLONIES
The establishment of different colonial infrastructures in the colonies had both positive and negative impacts, therefore both positive and negative impacts were:-
1. They had intensified exploitation of African resources: Through different services introduced in the colonies and through transportation activities.
2. They had led to unevenly development in the colonies: some places especially productive sectors were much favoured with different facilities like railway, good roads, post services and electricity supply.
3. They had contributed to separation of families: The establishment of colonial infrastructures resulted in to the displacement of African families through migrant labourers who were transported to work in different parts of African colonies.
4. It has contributed to urban growth: Normally the colonial infrastructures resulted in to urbanization and emergence of some towns like Dar-es-salaam, Tanga, Morogoro, Ausha, Kigoma and Dodoma.
5. They had contributed to the development of African nationalism: The colonial infrastructures helped much African during the struggle for independence through facilitating movement of African from one place to another place for spreading nationalistic ideas.
6. They created employment opportunities: The colonial infrastructure created number of jobs where many African both skilled and unskilled labourers were employed to different fields like postal customer cares and construction of infrastructures.
7. It has led to tatal underdevelopment of African continent due to intensive exploitation.
8. It has contributed to the destruction of African culture, due to high importation of manufactured goods from Europe.
D. THE COLONIAL INDUSTRY
Colonial industry: was the economic sector which based on procesing of raw materials and production of different consumer goods in the colonies. Normally the industrial sector was very small compered to other sectors of colonial economy. It should be noted that before the First World War there were only processing industries that aimed
of reducing the weight of raw materials to simplify and reduce the export costs. Example of these industries were the cotton and coffee ginneries, sisal processing and coffee factories. However after the Second World War the capitalist powers established import substitution industries, there were industries that produced goods which were formerly imported from Europe.
IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRIES
Import substitution industries: There were the industries that were established by the capitalist powers to produce goods in order to replace the imported goods from Europe. The main goal of these industries was to produce consumer goods mainly for the white settlers and few African civil servants. These goods included soap, cigarettes, and tooth paste.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORT SUBSTITUTION INDUSTRIES
1. There were light industries: All the import substitution industries were light industries. Since the colonial powers avoided the establishment of heavy manufacturing industries in the colonies so as to ensure that they create competition with goods coming from Europe.
2. Production of consumer goods: The import substitute industries were based on the production of consumer goods such as biscuits, soap and cigarettes. These industries were producing goods for the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and a few African petty bourgeoisie’s. The industries were not producing goods for the African masses.
3. They used skilled and unskilled labourers: These industries employed more African labourers with advanced technology. The colonialists were relevant to import advanced technology, because their goal was to exploit African resources.
4. They were Unevenly distributed in the colonies: The industries were not established every where in African colonies, they were mainly located in urban centers where most of the white settlers were found. Example Dar-es salaam, Tanga, Mwanza, Morogoro, in Tanganyika, Nairobi in Kenya, Lagos in Nigeria.
5. They were owned by foreigners: These industries were owned by European investors who insisted by colonial powers to come and invest in African colonies.
6. They were exploitative in nature: These industries aimed at exploiting African resources to the maximum so as to generate more profits for the capitalists. The colonial powers do not established industries for the benefits of Africans tmrather than for the capitalist benefits.
REASONS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL INDUSTRIES
The colonial powers decided to establish their industries due to the following reasons:-
1. To reduces the cost of importing goods in the colonies: The colonial powers aimed at reducing cost of importation of consumer goods in the colonies.
2. To increases consumption in the colonies: The colonial powers improved industrial sector especially import substitution industries in the colonies so as to increase the extent of consumption to both White settlers and Africans.
3. To ensures maximum exploitation of Africans: The colonial powers improved their industries so as to ensure that African were to be exploited to the maximum through buying manufactured goods and providing their labour power to those industries.
4. To reduces over depending on import of goods from Europe: The colonial power aimed at reducing the unnecessary importation of goods from Europe to Africa, hence some consumer goods have to be produced in the colonies.
5. To expand capitalist investment: The colonial powers improved the industrial sector so as to improve capital investment among the European capitalist through expanding the rate of markets, cheap labour and high demanding for raw materials.
6. To expand the employment opportunities in the colonies: The colonial powers aimed at increasing the number of jobs for both European and African labourers although the first priority was set to European population found in the colonies.
7. To increase the number of labourers: The colonial powers were established import substitution industries so that they can attract many African labourers to provide their labour power in industrial sector at different fields.
FACTORS INFLUENCED THE LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES IN THE COLONIES
1. Availability of raw materials: Most colonial industries both types of industries were located in areas where raw materials were produced, especially along the plantation and mining centres.
2. Presence of high population size: Most colonial industries were established in areas with dense population for the aim of getting cheap labour and source of markets for the produced goods. example Tanga, Dares salaam, Mwanza and Morogoro.
3. Availability of power supply: Most industries were located in areas with enough power supply like hydroelectricity for the aim of running industrial machine. Example by the 1936 British established hydroelectric power station in river Pangani.
4. Availability of different social services: Most industries were established in areas with different social services like education, water supply, housing and and infrastructures. These social services aimed at providing and encouraging Europeans and labour settlement.
5. Availability of transportation facilities: This was one of the ideal factors which have been influenced the location of different industries in the colonies. Therefore most colonial industries were established in areas with accessibility with road and railway transport for easily transportation.
6. The government policies: The colonial industries were highly influenced by the imperialist policies. The colonial governors and officials decided themselves where to establish different types of industries especially those places seemed to have capitalist interests.
7. Availability of water supply: Water was need and become so important in location the industries in the colonies because water helped on washing of raw materials in different types of industries especially textile industries, sisal and tea processing industries, moreover water was needed for cooling industrial machinery parts or engines from becoming mor hoter.
THE CASE OF UNDER-DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL SECTOR IN THE COLONIES
The manufacturing sector become very small in the colonies compered to other sectors of colonial economy. The colonial powers do not put much emphasis on development of heavy manufacturing industries in the colonies like automobile industry, aircraft industries or any other type of heavy industries but they encouraged little and small scale processing and import substitution industries which were established in Africa for only simplifying exploitation processes.
REASONS FOR UNDERDEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL SECTOR IN AFRICA
There are various reasons for little number of industries in the colonies which were:-
1. The impact of de-industrialization policy: The colonial powers they introduced the policies of of avoiding the development of manufacturing sector in the colonies for the
aim of avoiding stiff competition with African on searching for industrial or economic demands like raw materials, cheap labourers, markets and areas for investment.
2. Low capital investment in industrial sector: the colonial powers do not much invested their capital in industrial sector rather than been invested much on agriculture and construction activities.
3. Poor networking system of colonial economy: The colonial economic sectors were not week lined to the extent that they could encourage much high need for developing manufacturing sector. Example agriculture and mining sectors were not well improved in the colonies, hence the industrial sector remained backwardness.
4. Low level of technology imported in the colonies: The colonial powers imported poor and outdated technology in the colonies which could not bring about positive changes to encourage the development of manufacturing industries in the colonies.
5. Availability of enough cheap labourers in the colonies: African cheap labourers were highly available and reliable to the extent that the colonial powers seemed that there is no need to improve machines in the colonies because a lot of manual works they could be performed by African labourers.
6. Destruction of African local technological base: The colonial powers destroyed African technological discovery so as to avoid industrial revolution in Africa, these include killing of African handcraft industries and introduction of chopping hand system. Hence this has led to underdevelopment of industrial sector in Africa.
7. Fear of capital investment in the colonies: The colonial powers and their investors lostbtrust with African on investing more their capital because the European knew that African they could got their independence hence it will be great burden to them like what was happened in America and Asian colonies. Hence they afraid much which resulted in to the establishment of light industries in Africa.
8. Over using of African labourers: The colonial powers preferred much to use Afriacn labourers since they were cheap and reliable hence its result, African they do not
brought any positive technological changes in manufacturing industries since most African labourers were unskilled in nature.
WHY DE-INDUSTRIALIZATION IN AFRICA?
The colonial power were strongly prohibited the development of manufacturing industries in Africa due to the following reasons:-
1. The colonial powers wanted to avoid competition with African on getting cheap labour.
2. The colonial powers wanted African to remain as the main source of markets.
3. The colonial powers wanted to create dependent economy on Africa.
4. The colonial powers wanted African to import technology from outside.
5. The colonial powers wanted African to depend on experts from the capitalist countries.
6. The colonial powers wanted African to remain as the source of raw materials.
7. Fear of creating larger working class in the colonies.
8. Availability of enough cheap labourers.
METHODS EMPLOYED BY COLONIAL POWERS TO DE- INDUSTRIALIZE AFRICA
1. Destruction of Local industries: many local industries were killed through chopping hand system, importation of manufactured goods etc.
2. Introduction of chopping hands system: The colonialist also prohibited African from engaging in various industries activities. This was more especially in Zaire, and Senegal where as anyone who went contrary heavy punishment was given to him. E.g. cutting their hands.
3. Importation European manufactured goods: in order to discourage African goods produced from African (Local African Industries).
4. Introduction of migrant labourers: this policy had negative effects to Africans simply because local African industries lacked labor as most of the laborers were. Concentrated on colonial production.
5. Introduction of colonialial education: which was provided to very few Africans who were not linked to develop Africans local industries as they were prepared to serve to the colonial production as clerk and messengers.
6. Destruction of African local trade. it disrupted the demanding of some essential goods wthin African example salt, and local medicine.
7. Introduction of de-industrialization policy in Africa.
THE EFFECTS OF DE- INDUSTRIALIZATION PROCESS IN AFRICAN
The Policy of de – industrialization brought many effects to the Africans among them were.
1. Decline Local Africans economy.
2. Stagnation of African technology.
3. Intensive exploitation of African labor force: Through low wages with long Working hours.
4. It brought under development of African continent: until now days African still depend on developed countries.
5. Destruction of African mindset: African still undermine any goods produced in African and praise those produced in Europe.
6. Destruction of African culture: Due to high importation of manufactured goods from abroad.
EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF COLONIAL INDUSTRIES
The colonial industries had number of impacts in the colonies of both positive and negative impacts:-
1. They paved way to the development of manufacturing industries in Africa after independence.
2. They contributed to intensive exploitation of Africa resources.
3. They contributed to technological disparities between African and Europe.
4. They created dependent economy in Africa, where Africans remain producers of raw materials.
5. They contributed to the development of towns. Example Dar-es-laam, Tanga, Mwanza, Morogoro and Arusha.
6. They created employment opportunities in the colonies.
7. They contributed to the rise of small working class and trade unions.
E. THE COLONIAL TRADE
Trade: is the system of buying and selling goods and services.
Colonial trade: was the kind of trade which was established by colonialist in the colonies for the aim of profit making. Normally the colonial trade was conducted by means of money economy. However the colonial trade was facilitated by money economy. Example of goods that were exchanged include
Goods from Africa: minerals, animal skins, Ostrich feathers, Bee wax, Agricultural products such as sisal, cotton, coffee, Tea, and minerals like Tin, Gold, Iron and copper.
Goods from Europe: Clothes, beads, looking mirror, torches, bicycles and foods varieties. Normally after the second world war the colonial powers decided to improve the trade sector so as to increase capitalist exploitation in the colonies.
OBJECTIVES OF INTRODUCTION OF COLONIAL TRADE
1. To increase the volume of raw materials in the colonies.
2. To expand markets for capitalist goods.
3. To expand employment opportunities in the colonies for European population.
4. To expand room for capital investment.
5. To effect colonial exploitation.
6. To maximize capitalist profits.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL TRADE
1. It based on money economy: money become the medium of exchange during the colonial trade.
2. It based on importation of manufactured goods from Europe.
3. It based on opening infrastructures such roads, railways, etc.
4. It was exploitative on nature: African were exploited their raw materials through low prices.
5. It characterized by establishment of marketing boards in the colonies.
6. It was dominated by foreigners: The main traders were Europeans and Asians such as Arabs and Indianans.
METHODS USED BY COLONIAL POWERS TO ESTABLISH COLONIAL TRADE
1. Importation of manufactured goods from Europe.
2. Creation of marketing boards: Aimed at fixing the official prices of peasant commodities.
3. Introduction of money economy: money has created to be medium of exchange.
4. Killing of African local trade. The bater system was diminished.
5. Creation of physical infrastructures such as roads, railways. So as to facilitate movement of traders and their goods.
6. Killing of local industries, this was clothes making industries, pottery making industries, iron working industries.
7. Establishment of import substitution industries. So as to increase the rate of manufactured goods.
8. The use of Asians (Arabs and Indians) by giving them capital.
EFFECTS OF COLONIAL TRADE IN THE COLONIES
Negative impacts
1. It has contributed to intensive exploitation of African raw materials through fixing prices of commodities.
2. It has led to technological stagnation in Africa due to importation of European goods.
3. It has led to destruction of African culture due to over importation of new goods in the colonies.
4. It has led to decline of industrial sector in Africa, due to killing of local industries.
5. It has led to total underdevelopment of African continent due to intensive exploitation.
6. It contributed to the famine and hunger due to over emphasis on growing much cash crops than food crops.
7. It has led to unevenly development in the colonies, those places with marketing boards were highly favoured with different facilities.
Positive impacts
1. It has led to growth of trade centres.
2. It has contributed to improvement of infrastructures.
3. It has led to formation of trade unions.
4. It has led to emergence of new goods in the colonies. Clothes, guns, foods.
5. It has led to accumulation of wealth among traders.
6. It has contributed to urbanization.
F. COLONIAL MINING
Colonial mining: was the sector of colonial economy which based on extraction of minerals in the colonies. Normally minerals become very potential raw materials to capitalist economy during the colonial era.
The colonial powers improved mining industry in the colonies so that they can increase the rate of raw materials. Example of minerals that were extracted during the colonial era include,
Gold: in Ghana.
Copper: in Katanga Zaire (Congo).
Diamond and Gold: in South Africa (Kimberley and Transvaal) Diamond (Mwadui) and Gold (Geita) in Tanzania.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL MINING
1. It was operated by force.
2. It was characterized by land alienation.
3. It based on construction of physical infrastructures.
4. It mainly preferred the use of migrant labour.
5. It characterized by introduction of taxation.
6. It was export oriented.
TECHNIQUES USED BY COLONIAL POWERS TO ESTABLISH COLONIAL MINING
1. Introduction of land alienation.
2. Introduction of various taxes.
3. Introduction of money economy.
4. Introduction migrant labourers.
5. Creation of physical infrastructure.
6. Increase in good working condition to African labour.
7. Importation of manufactured goods towards the mining centres.
EFFECTS OF COLONIAL MINING
1. It brought intensive exploitation: Through low wages, forced labour, taxation, land alienation, etc.
2. Environmental degradation: such soil erosion, deforestation, pollutions, loss of soil fertility.
3. Separation of families due to migrant labour.
4. It brought classes: Rich and poor classes.
5. Source of underdevelopment: due to intensive exploitation.
6. Destruction of African culture due to importation of foreign goods.
7. Decline of local trade due to importation of manufactured goods from abroad.
EFFECTS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY IN THE COLONIES
Colonial economy has both positive and negative effects in the colonies.
Positive effects
1. It leads to the establishment of physical infrastructure which later served Africans.
2. It leads to introduction of new cash crops. Example: cotton, sisal, tea, tobacco, etc.
3. Introduction of various social services such as schools, hospitals, electricity and water supply.
4. Growth of towns and cities e.g Dar-es-salam, Bagamoyo, Mombasa, Tanga, etc.
5. Improvement of people's welfare such housing, etc.
6. It stimulated the development of African nationalism. Due to intensive exploitation.
Negative effects
1. It brought intensive exploitation: Through low wages, forced labour, taxation, land alienation.
2. Stagnation of Local technology: due to migrant labour and de-industrialization policy.
3. Separation of families: As the result ofmigrant labour.
4. It brought classes: Rich and poor classes.
5. Source of under redevelopment: due to intensive exploitation.
6. Destruction of African culture due to importation of foreign goods.
7. Decline of local trade: due to importation of manufactured goods from abroad.
8. Killing of local industries: Through de-industrialization policy.
9. Source of imbalanced development between rural and urban.
10. Integration of African in to capitalist economy: Until now days African they produce what they don’t consume and the consume what they don’t produce.
GUIDING QUESTIONS
1. Why did the colonial powers established their economy in Africa? Six points.
2. Examine six techniques employed by colonial state or government to establish peasant agriculture in the colonies.
3. Explain six factors for failure of settler agriculture in Uganda and introduction of peasant agriculture.
4. Why did the British colonial powers preferred peasant agriculture than other forms of agriculture? (Give six reasons).
5. Explain six factors for failure of settler agriculture in Uganda?
6. With examples explain six tacts or methods employed by colonial powers to introduce the metropolitan economy during the colonial era.
7. Discuss six mechanisms used by imperialists to break up East African indigenous economy.
8. Critically examine six factors which have been contributed the establishment of settler agriculture in different African colonies.
9. Why did the colonial powers did not encouraged the development of heavy manufacturing industries in the colonies? Six points.
10. Why the manufacturing sector in the colonies remained backwardness? Six points.
11. Why did the colonial powers launched the de-industrialization policy in Africa? Six points.
12. Why did the colonial powers discouraged the development of heavy manufacturing industries in Africa? Six points.
13. Examine six methods used by colonialists to avoid the development of manufacturing industries in African.
14. Explain six effects of de-industrialization policy in African colonies.
QN: Examine six techniques employed by colonialists to establish colonial trade.
QN: Examine six techniques that were employed by colonialists to establish colonial mining in the colonies.
QN: Elaborate six factors favoured settler agriculture in Kenya.
QN: Explain six techniques employed by the colonial state to the establishment of settler agriculture in the colonies.
Qn: How settlers favoured and protected by the colonial government in the colonies? Six points.
QN: By giving six points show how the colonial state protected settler's interests in the colonies like Kenya.
QN: Elaborate six factors favoured plantations agriculture in the colonies.
QN: Explain six techniques employed by the colonial state to establish plantation agriculture in the colonies.
QN: Why did the colonial powers preferred much to work with migrant labour in different economic sectors like Mines, agriculture and constructions than other labour category? Six points.
Qn: Why migrant labourers were beneficial to the capitalists during the colonial era? Six points.
Qn: Assess six impacts of migrant labour in the colonies.
QN: Analyze six characteristics and distribution of colonial infrastructure.
QN: Why the colonial powers constructed transport and communication systems in the colonies? Six points.
Qn: Why most colonial railways and roads were run perpendicular from the coast to interiors.
QN: Assess six (6) contributions of colonial infrastructures to the development of colonial economy.
QN:Why did the colonial powers decided to establish their industries in the colonies? Six points.
Qn: Elaborate six techniques and mechanisms employed by colonial powers to increase the number of labour power in the colonies after the second world war.
QN: Explain six consequences of Mining.
Qn: Discuss six factors determined the introduction different agricultural systems in the colonies.
QN: Account for six factors for variation of agricultural systems in the colonies.
Qn: why agriculture sector remain as a backbone during the colonial economy?
QN: Critically assess six conditions of labour in the colonies.
