AFRICAN INTERNATIONAL AFFARS
What is international cooperation?
International cooperation: is the political, economic, diplomatic and culture relation among the nations. These relationship including:-
i. Political relation: Is the cooperation whereby the two or more independent state share ideas above political matters.
ii. Economic relation: Is the situation whereby two or more independent states share economic activities e.g. International trade. There are four forms of economic relations. These are free trade area, customs union, common market and economic union.
iii. Diplomatic relation: Is the level of international relation whereby different embassies are involved in structuring political, economic, social and cultural matters within their home countries and the lost countries.
A diplomat is a person who officially represents his/her own country in a foreign country.
iv. Cultural relation: among the nations can be started in various form like the exchange of dances troops, theater groups, Musician and also sports and games. e.g. through world cup, UEFA, Kagame Cup, FA Cup etc. different nations come together and compete. This situation develops strong culture relation.
Types of international cooperation
1. Bilateral cooperation: This is a type of cooperation which involves the agreement between two states E.g. Tanzania and Zambia in running TAZARA. In this co-operation there is no specific or common ideology governing the undertaking of the member countries. Countries involve in this cooperation can agree to cooperate in various areas such as economic, cultural, scientific and technological researches, political, security and defense.
2. Multilateral Cooperation: This is the types of Cooperation which involve group of many countries like regional inter grouping such as S.A.D.C, E.A.C, and COMESA, NAM, AUetc. Multilateral cooperation is sometimes known as regional multilateral integration.
RATIONALE/ REASON/ OBJECTIVES OF CONTINENTAL COORPARATION
1. To preserve political independence and freedom.
2. To fight against economic exploitation.
3. To promote African unity.
4. To eradicate dependent economy.
5. To preserve African culture.
6. To eradicate poverty.
BENEFITS/ IMPORTANCE OF ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
1. It promote strong economic base.
2. It expands regional and national markets.
3. It promotes industrial development among the member countries.
4. It facilitates development of transport and communication.
5. It increases division of labor and specialization.
6. It improves quality of product among the member countries. Due to competition among the member countries
PROBLEMS FACING ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
1. Ideological differences among the member countries: E.g Capitalism and socialism.
2. Differences in the level of economic development: Some countries their level of economic is high hence contribute more than others.
3. Language differences among the member countries: E.g in EAC some members use Kiswahili language while other members use English language hence bring difficult in trade activities.
4. Difference values of Currency: E.g. in EAC each country has its currency hence vary in terms of values.
5. Financial problems
6. Shortage of qualified man power: This cause the problem in running the region in a efficient way.
7. Political instability in many African countries e.g Rwanda, Burundi etc.
8. Problem of nationalism/selfishness: most members looking for the benefits of their countries instead of developing the region.
9. Poor transport and communication system.
10. Neo-colonialism.
11. Diseases and natural calamities. E.g HIV/AIDS, prolonged droughts, etc.
IMPORTANCE OF MULTILATERAL COOPERATION
1. The country gets aid and loans from friend nations with minimum nationalities or restrictions.
2. Promotion of both internal and external peace: The country is assured of security assistance from friendly nations and Tanzania participates in solving problems of other countries.
3. Improvement of transport and communication: Tanzania is able to improve transport systems across the borders due to friendly relations with the neighboring countries. For example, though Tanzania, Mozambique Friendship Association (TAMOFA). Tanzania has been able to construct Mtwara Bridge in association with Mozambique.
4. Economic development has also been achieved through friendly relations with other countries. Investors from friendly states come and invest in Tanzania and thus contribute to the economic development of Tanzania
5. International repute to Tanzania.
6. Industrial development in various sectors due to private investors from friendly nations and the presence of market in those friendly states.
(A) SOUTHERN AFRICA DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)
Southern African Development Community (SADC): is the economic cooperation of fourteen(14) countries of central and southern African states. SADC was formed in 1993 to replace the former Southern Africa Development Coordination Cooperation (SADCC) which was formed in 1980 by Nine (9) countries such as Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. This Association consists of 14 Africa countries namely:- Botswana, Congo (DRC), Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Sey challes, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Switzerland, Lesotho.
OBJECTIVES OF SADC
1. To promote sustainable and equitable economic growth that will ensure poverty alleviation.
2. To promote common political values: that are transmitted through institution that is democratic, legitimate and effective.
3. To achieve sustainable utilization of natural resources: so that to ensure effective protection of the environment.
4. To combat HIV/AIDS and other dangerous diseases like Dengue, Ebola, covid 19, etc.
5. To promotes gender equality: in oder to build the stable community among the member countries.
6. To build deeper economy among the member countries: The aimed at deloping deeper economy with good communicative systemsin order to stimulate agricultural and industrial development.
7. To promote peace and security among the member states.
8. To promotes and protect human rights.
PRINCIPLES OF SADC
SADC and its member act in accordance with the the following principles.
1. Peace, solidarity and security.
2. Sovereignty of all member states.
3. Human rights, democracy and rule of law.
4. Peaceful settlement of disputes.
5. Equity, equality and mutual benefit.
6. Promotion of economic welfare of the region.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF SADC
1. Establishment of Regional Fund for HIV/AIDS: This is because approximately 15 million people in SADC region are HIV POSITIVE.
2. Peace stability: Since the Angola peace award (Great) in April 2002, the region has enjoyed a certain degree of political stability between MPCA Vs UNITA under Jonas Savimbi from 1970’s - 1990’s.
3. Economic growth: the Growth Development Programs (GDP) in the SADC region has increased from 27% in 2002 to 32% in 2004.
4. It has led to the increase of Women representation in political and decision making: Normally the position is increasing very fast in the SADC member states the target was to get 30% of women representation in political by 2005 some member states have already reached the target. Example South Africa 31.3 %, Mozambique 31. 3%, Tanzania 30%.
5. Improvement in food security: The number of people who need food assistance is decreasing. Example In 2002 the number was 15.2 million people but in January 2004 the number drop out to 7%.
6. It has managed to create political relationship among the member states: this has helped to create collective effort in solving political conflicts in different countries. SADC has been cooperating with other organization on such as the AU so as to build strong unity and solidarity among African countries.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SADC IN PROMOTING PEACE AND SECURITY IN AFRICA
1. It has contributed to the formation of gender balance in African member countries.
2. It has led to the formation of unity and solidarity among the member countries.
3. It has high enhanced political stability among the member countries. Example in Angola in 2002.
4. It has encouraged the promotion and protection for human rights.
5. It has reduced the problem of food shortage among the member countries, by encouraging agricultural development.
6. It has contributed to the formation of good international relationship among nations in the region.
7. It has played a greater role on eradication of dangerous diseases in the region: through promoting education to the member countries.
CHALLENGES/ PROBLEMS FACING SADC
Nationalism – some member state, cater for national interests first before SADC this undermines regional interests.
1. Different levels of development – this leads to inequality in the distribution of benefits derived from SADC under taking example SA is stronger economically than the other member states.
2. Weak financial base: Member states rely on foreign assistance which hinders SADC to become self reliant.
3. Conflicts and wars in some member states e.g. Conflicts in DRC.
4. Multi membership among member states. Some member states are also members of other regional integrations such as EAC and COMESA.
5. Refugee problems, there is high influx of refugees in SADC region because of political instability in some member states.
6. Lack of economic diversity, SADC member states produce similar goods mostly agricultural products hence difficult to secure markets.
7. Low price of agricultural products in the world market.
(B). FORMATION EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (EAC)
East African Community: is the economic integration/cooperation of East African countries. The former East African Community was formed in 1967. The countries involved were, Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. The headquarter of former East Africa Community was at Arusha.
RATIONALE/OBJECTIVES OF FORMER EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
1. To promote free movement of goods and services in trade.
2. To promote Common services like railway, harbors, roads, ports, telecommunication etc.
3. To expand markets for the produced goods among the member countries.
4. To run the research services in various areas like agriculture, medicine, population etc.
5. To facilitate free movement of people and goods in the region.
6. To promote resource mobilization among the member countries.
COLLAPSE OF FORMER EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (E.A C)
Reasons for the collapse of early E.AC.
1. Differences in ideologies: whereby Tanzania adopted socialism, Kenya continued with capitalist while Uganda was between socialism and Capitalism.
2. Over throw of the Obote regime by Idd Amin Dada: Obote was a close friendly of Nyerere so he decided not, for cooperate with Idd Amin. The situation created misunderstanding between Tanzania and Uganda; therefore it was difficult for E.A.C leaders to meet.
3. The outbreak of war between Tanzania and Uganda in 1978/79.
4. Difference in currency in terms of value. Kenyan currency was higher than the other two countries of the two member states.
5. Dis-satisfaction among the member state that Kenya was benefited than other states. Kenya was economically, powerful than other states. This made other two states to be market of Kenyan’s industrial goods.
6. Failure of East African development bank (EADB) failed to meet its founder expectation there were many demands but the banks income was unable to meet the demands.
7. The fall of Milton Obote in 1978: This has led to the misunderstanding between Tanzania and Uganda.
8. No agreed pattern industrial specialization.
FORMATION OF NEW EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
The new East Africa community was signed its treaty in 1999 at Arusha by Three head of states (Museven, Mkapa and Moi) signed treaty at Arusha. However the new East African community was established officially in 2000 by the three head of states of Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda to replace the former EAC which was collapsed in 1977.
The new east African community has admitted new four members which include Burundi, Rwanda, Democtatic relublic of Congo (D.R.C) and Southern Sudan. However the new E. A. C has total seven member countries.
The Sketch map showing Current E. African community
AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF NEW EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
1. To foster economic development among the member states: by consolidating the agreed fields that would lead to equitable economic development within the partner states which would intern lead to people’s standard of living.
2. To promotes sustainable utilization of national resources and protect the environment.
3. To enhances and strengthen participation of private in the region.
4. To establish custom union with common market, monetary union and ultimately a political federation.
5. To promotes peace and stability among the member countries.
6. To expands markets for the produced goods and services among the member countries.
7. To promotes free movement of people and goods within the region.
8. To ensures resource mobilization.
9. To promotes common services.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF NEW EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY ( E.A.C)
Over ten (10) years since its re-establishment the new E.A.C made several achievements such as:-
1. The community has promoted political relationship within the member. Example Member counties formed the East Africa community parliament which among other things discussed political issues, also each member state has a ministry responsible for the E.A.C affairs.
2. Culturally the community has succeeded to enhance sports and Games – there are several regional competitions that have been introduced and are held on rotational basis.
3. There are several projects initiated to improve communication and transportation example Road Networks.
4. There is an increase in fall movement of people and labor among the members States example there are many Tanzania youths and pupils schooling in UGANDA also there are many Kenyans and Ugandans working in Tanzanians various sector such as Education, Hotel management, Banking, Tourism.
5. The community has succeeded in making contribution to peace in the Great lakes region example; in DRC.
6. There is flow of capital among the member state inform of investments. This has created employment opportunity hence improvements of people living standards.
PROBLEMS / CHALLENGES FACING THE NOW DAYS AFRICA
1. Differences in level of economic development: there is no effective and sustainable mechanism to address the imbalance hence cause different in the contributions.
2. Insecurity and endless conflicts: these include both within and around the East Africa Region. Example, In Northern Uganda there are endless conflict between Government and Rebels.
3. Poor transport and communication.
4. Diseases. E.g. HIV/ AIDS, Corona pandemic 2020.
5. Natural calamities such as drought.
6. Poor markets for different goods.
7. Difference in currency.
(C). THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATE (ECOWAS)
ECOWAS: is an economic integration of West African states formed in 1975. Its headquarter was at Lagos Nigeria in 28/May/1975. Its members include:- Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Chad, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bisau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.
Objectives of ECOWAS:-
1. To promote cooperation and integration in economic, social and cultural activities.
2. To raise the living standard among the member countries.
3. To enhance economic stability among the member states.
4. To enable free movement of people, capital and service in the region.
5. To promotes industrial development: in order to avoid duplication of resources and capital.
6. To formulate agricultural policies and projects among the member states.
7. To achieve the common market, research and food processing.
ACHIEVEMENT OF ECOWAS
1. It has abolished custom duties and tariffs on goods and services in the region.
2. It has managed to solve some political disputes within the member states. E.g. it worked hard in restoring peace in Liberia after the outbreak of Civil wars. This was done through ECOWAS monitoring group known as ECOMOG.
3. It has created free movement of gods and services in the region: this has enabled people to cross the boarders freely within the region.
4. It has established different environmental conservation projects in the region. E.g. In 1982 a ten years forestation projects were established.
5. It has succeeded to keep peace in West Africa known as ECOMOG. That force has been intervening to restore peace in West African countries such as: Liberia (1990), Sierra Leone (1994), Guinea Bissau (1998).
6. It has promoted good relationship among member states in the region, hence enhancing political and economic stability.
7. It has established a mechanism for conflicts prevention management and resolution in the region.
PROBLEMS/ CHALLENGES FACING ECOWAS
1. Political instability: This makes difficult for the respective member states to implement the set objectives. As a result ECOWAS concentrates much effort and time in solving political problems.
2. Economic dependence: The member states still rely on external aid to finance development projects. External assistance is normally accompanied by tough conditionality.
3. Low level of science and technology: The member states are technologically backward. As a result they fail to utilize the available resources effectively.
4. Differences in level of economic development: Some ECOWAS member states are economically powerful than others, this small powerful states dominate or influence the
affairs of the organization. E.g. Nigeria has a dominant role in ruling ECOMOG and carried a big share of ECOMOG. This is because ECOMOG commanders have been predominantly Nigerian commander.
5. Nationalism: Some member’s states work for the interest of benefiting their countries first before the ECOWAS.
6. Poor communication system: there is proper linkage of road and railway, most road are seasonal.
7. Weak Financial base: most ECOWAS are poor economic base, this hinder the organization to reach the state goals.
(D).THE COMMON MARKETS OF ESTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICAN STATES (COMESA)
COMESA: is the trading organization of eastern and southern countries. It was formed in 1994 to replace the former Preferential Trading Area (PTA) which was established in 1982.
OBJECTIVES OF COMESA
1. To promote and defending cooperation among the member countries.
2. To harmonize the development policies.
3. To promote cooperation in case of financial.
4. To promote trade expansion within the region.
5. To promote strong economic development.
6. To promote strong industrial base.
PROBLEMS FACING COMESA
1. Differences in level of economic development.
2. Language problem.
3. External debts among the member countries.
4. Lack of common currency.
5. Political instability.
6. Nationalism.
7. The influence of neo colonialism.
REASONS TO WHY TANZANIA WITHDRAW FROM COMMESA
Tanzania pulled out from COMESA in September 2000.
1. Failure of COMESA to realize its goals.
2. Lack of seriousness among the members countries.
3. Low gain to Tanzania from COMESA.
4. The role played minister of foreign affairs: Jakaya Mrisho kikwete he said that Tanzania is a multiple member of many organizations with the similar objectives hence there is no need to continue with COMESA.
5. The influence of south Africa: South Africa has advised Tanzania to withdraw from COMESA as the way of avoiding interference with SADC.
Effects of Tanzania withdrawing from COMESA
1. High tariffs to Tanzania goods.
2. Concentration of goods in the country.
3. Cut-down of financial assistance from COMESA.
4. Decline of trade between Tanzania and his neighbors.
(E). THE FORMATION OF AFRICAN UNION (AU)
African union (AU): Is the organization formed by all independent African countries in 2002 to replace the former organization of African Union (OAU) which was established in 1963. The head quarter of AU was at Durbin in South Africa. The major objective of AU is to create economic unity among the African countries.
OBJECTIVES OF AU
1. To promote peace and security among the African countries.
2. To promote deeper African economy.
3. To promote democracy among the African countries.
4. To remove dependent economy.
5. To promote political stability.
6. To ensure resource mobilization.
7. To achieve a greater unity and solidarity among African countries.
8. To defend the sovereignty territories integrity and independence of its members states.
9. To promote international cooperation and promote human rights.
IMPLEMENTATION OF AU OBJECTIVES
1. There has been a renewed commitment to human right, good governance, social and economic development.
2. Intensification of efforts to fight against HIV/AIDS in the continent: There are more efforts made of fight the pandemic which is claiming the life of many young and energetic people.
3. Recognition of gender balances in the election of the Africa Union's commissioners and in the election of a woman a parliament's first president.
4. It has established New partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) with the focus of the developing the Africa states. NEPAD is the latest scheme for boosting economic development among the Africa states.
5. It has created the court of justice which interprets laws and protects them. Through this organ there is an improvement on respect of human rights.
6. It has managed to crease African Central Bank which provided loans to member states.
7. There has been an establishment of the pan-Africa Parliament and the peace and Security Council.
8. Promotion of democracy: Many Africa countries hold multiparty elections, wide spread consultations o constitutional reforms are occurring in many Africa countries due to the efforts of AU
ACHIEVEMENT OF AFRICAN UNITY (AU)
Progress has been made as follows:-
1. It has promoted African unity and friendship for being a Forum where African leaders meet annually to discuss affairs of the continent.
2. It has managed to solve internal conflicts and Civil wars in some states. E.g. in Comoro where the AU intervened back up the government of President Ali Abdullah Sambi from labels led by colonel Bakary.
3. It has managed to promote African regional economic integration e.g. promoting the African Development Bank (ADB).
4. If has managed to make peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiations, mediation and conclusion e.g. Settlement of Kenyan disputes peacefully as well as settlement of dispute in Zimbabwe by establishing the coalition government President Robert Mugabe of ZANU – PF and Morgan Tsvangorai from MDC.
5. AU through cultural activities like the African cup of nations has helped to promote closer understanding, cooperation and friendship among African states.
6. It has maintained the no-interference into the internal affairs of the states.
CHALLENGES FACING THE AU
1. Differences in levels of development: some AU members are economically powerful than other so they tend to influence the affairs of the AU as well dominating others. example, South Africa also the North African countries (Arab countries) like Egypt are not ready to cooperate closely with poor countries and also Nigeria.
2. Economic dependence: African countries retain a dependent economy inherited from colonialists and continue under Neo colonialism e.g. technological dependence, budgetary dependence, loan dependence and expatriates.
3. Conflict and wars within the AU members Example: In DRC, Mali, Sudan Terrorism and threats in some African countries. Example, Kenya (West gate issue in 2013), Somalia, Uganda, Nigeria
4. Poor transport and communication systems: there is inter-territorial linkage were bordering states organically belonged to different colonial master.
5. Absence of strong army: normally AU it depend from UN has no standing army of
itself, this is because the AU cannot operate military or form a standing army without the consent of the UN security council. This delays its ability to settle situation that call for that immediately.
6. Refugee problem in Africa: due to political instability led to high influence of refugees and political instability in some all member examples Tanzania from Rwanda, Burundi and DRC – Chad from Sudan, Kenya from Somalia.
7. Poor infrastructure: this hinders the movement of goods and services in the region.
8. Diseases. E.g HIV/AIDS, corona pandemic in 2020.
(F). AFRICAN AND THE UNITED NATION (UN)
The united nation (UN): is an international organizations comprising of independent states from all over the world. It was formed after the Second World War in 1945 to replace the league of nation which was formed in 1920 after proved failure to maintain peace and security in the world. The headquarters of UN is in New York, USA
OBJECTIVES OF UN
UN was formed to fulfill the following objectives:-
1. To develops friendly relations among states of the world
2. To maintains international peace and security.
3. To promotes respect for human rights and freedom.
4. To promotes human welfare by uplifting living standards.
5. To promotes international understanding among nations.
6. To solves political conflicts among countries in the world.
THE STRUCTURE OF/ ORGANS OF UN
Normally Un is made up with six major bodies which are:-
1. The general assembly: This is the most supreme organ of the UN. It meets once year unless during extra ordinary sessions and comprises of all members states of the UN. It is made up with all 191 member countries each with one vote. It undertake all major discussion and decision on UN actions. It has a power to admit new members to the UN and approve budget for UN programs and operations.
Functions of the General Assembly
i. Admit new members.
ii. Consider any matter touching on international peace and security.
iii. To approve the UN budget.
iv. To elect numbers of permanent members of the Security Council, judges of international court of Justice and appoint the Secretary General with approval of the Security council Each independent country qualities to be a member of the organization. Most of the African countries joined on the 1960’s soon after independence, each member is entitled to only one vote. Out of 51 founders of the United Nations, only three were African states. Thus were Liberia, Egypt and Ethiopia. South Africa also participated but under while rule.
Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda joined the UN as soon as the respective countries required political independence in 1961,1962 and 1963 respectively. By 1980, 50 states in the continent had become states of the UN it continent had become member states of the UN, it constituted one third of the UN membership.
2. The Security Council: This is the most powerful body in the UN. It responsible for maintaining peace and security when conflict occurs. It comprises of 15 members, five of them permanent they include China, Russia, France, United Kingdom and the U.S.A. The ten Norn-permanent members are appointed for a two- year term by the General Assembly. The five permanent members have veto powers. This means if any one of them votes against a proposal, resolution cannot be made.
Functions of the Security Council
i. To enforce international peace and security: If any state defied the UN, the Security Council can order for sanction against it. For example Libya, apartheid South Africa and Iraq are good example Investigates situations that pose a threat to international peace Urges states to conform to peaceful settlements of disputes.
ii. To expel countries that violates UN regulations
iii. To recommend procedures to be followed in dispute settlements for countries experiencing squabbles.
3. The secretariat: This is the UN executive organ which observe the administrations of the UN's programs. It is headed by secretary general of the UN. The secretariat is located in New York, USA and consists of international civil servants, led by the Secretary General. It is the body concerned with the day to–day work of the UN. It consists of five members.
Duties/functions of the UN Secretary General
(i) To administer peace keeping operations
(ii) Researches on trends of human rights
(iii) Points out any situation that poses a threat to global peace to the UN general assembly
(iv) Monitors how UN recommendations are executed.
(v) Translates documents.
(vi) Registers treaties
4. The international Court of Justice: It based in the Hague, Netherlands and is the highest judicial organ in the UN. It consists of 15 Judges, who serves a term of 9 years with a possibility for re- election. It handles issues involving diplomatic staff, fishing rights, nuclear tests and international borders and territorial water issues. For example in 2004, the court arbitrated the boundary dispute between Nigeria and Cameroon over Bakazi peninsula, awarding the region to Cameroon.
5. The Trusteeship council: This organ took over the work of the mandates Commission that was created by the league of Nations to supervise the affairs of territories under colonial rule all over the world.
It consists of five permanent members, and six additional members appointed by the general assembly. Its work includes, the promotion of economic social, and political development of territories under its mastership. Some of the countries that acquire political independence under the trusteeship include, Libya 1949, Somalia – 1960, Cameroon01960, Ghana-1957, Tanganyika 1961 Rwanda and Burundi-1962 and Western Samoa in the Atlantic Ocean- 1962.
6. The Economic and social council ( ECOSOC): This is made up of 54 UN members states elected by the General Assembly to serve for a term of three years. It serves as the main UN forum for coordination of economic and social issues. This work is supervised by commissions, which include;-
(i) The statistical commission
(ii) The population commission
(iii) The commission for social development
(iv) The commission on the status of women
(v) The commission on narcotic drugs. its work is done through different agencies which include WHO, FAO, UNESCO and UNICEF
AGENCIES OF UNITED NATIONS
1. UNITED NATION INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN FUND (UNICEF)
UNICEF: deals with the welfare activities with respect to children all over the world. Ways in which African states worked closely with UNICEF to promote the welfare of children are:-
i. To assists refugees worldwide for example in 1959 UNICEF helped refugees in Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria with blankets and tents.
ii. To collaborates with African states in promoting sanitation in rural areas.
iii. Donating essential drugs to protect the lives of young children and mothers.
iv. To conduct research in collaboration with African countries in the field of agriculture to fight multrutrition and hunger.
v. Promote girl- child education programmes with a view to uplift the quality of life of African children.
vi. Promotion of material health in Africa and in other parts of the world.
vii. UNICEF sponsors programmes in the continent to promote the welfare of infants through breastfeeding campaigns and other forms of nutrition including malnutrition.
viii. Work together with African countries to develop new vaccines and biotic. UNICEF promote vaccination campaigns against some of the pandemic in the continent such as tuberculosis. Polio, measles, yaws, syphilis
2. UNITED NATION EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO)
African countries with UNESCO.
UNESCO has provided technical assistance to African countries since independence, when regional office was opened in 1962 in Ghana. It promotes educational, cultural and scientific development globally.
Functions of UNESCO
Activities promoted by UNESCO include:-
1. Assistance towards free and compulsory education.
2. Ending racial, social and international tension.
3. Appreciation of cultural values of different people.
4. Promotion of scientific research with a view of raising people standard of living.
3. Africa and the Red Cross
The international committee of the Red cross, is one of the International Non – Governmental Organizations that have played a big role in providing assistance to part of the world experiencing distress in different forms. Therefore it works closely with UN and its specialized bodies to assist in humanitarian works.
Functions of Red Cross
Assistance provided by Red Cross includes:-
i. Provision of shelter in the form of tents for victims of disc esters, for example Tanzanians was experienced floods in 2006.
ii. It provides assistance in form of medial supplies, doctors, nurse in war zones in Africa and world at large.
iii. It mobilizes volunteers who are rained to handle different kinds of emergencies.
iv. It Organizes campaigns for blood donation aimed at assisting the people who requires blood transfusion especially during emergencies such as wars, natural disasters
v. It provides assistance to refugees and other victims in terms of food and water. For example in Liberia and Sierra Leone in 1990’s as well as Somalia and Sudan.
5. UNTED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSION FOR REFUGEES (UNHCR)
Most of the refugees in the world live in the African continent. The Organization of African Unity Cooperated with the UNHCR since its formation.
Functions of UNHCR
By 1979, there were 3.5 million refugees in the continent, 5 million by the 1990’s. Among the support provided by the UNHCR to the continent includes:-
i. To conduct research on the needs of refugees in the world.
ii. To assist African refugees with food and clothing.
iii. To assist African refugees with medical aid.
iv. To assist African refugees with education.
v. Mobilize for funds among different states for refugees
vi. Assisting African refugees with protection and places for settlement by negotiating with governments.
IMPORTANCE OF UN TO AFRICAN COUNTRIES
1. It has supported disarmament: Over the years it has spearheaded the crusades towards reducing dangerous arms in the world especially nuclear weapons. Several treaties have been signed with the aim of cutting down number of such weapons, for example the strategic Arms limitation talks( salt).
2. It promotes peaceful in most African countrues: All this is possible through the use of peace keepers, sending observer missions, special envoys and mediators to intervene in volatile areas. For example in Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra leone, Liberia and Somalia.
3. It has has supported the promotion and protection of human rights: This was done through the General Assembly adopting the universal declaration of human rights in 1948 which idenfies the universal rights and freedoms of a person in spite of age, gender or race.
4. The UN also fought for promotion of democracy and good governance: It was in this spirit that the trusteeship council fought for the political independence of colonial territories.
5. It supports the promotion of education and cultural interaction: The UN campaigns for the promotion of education and cultural interaction among the people of the world regardless of race, language or geographical area.
6. It supports economic development to African countries: The organization has also coordinated effects among world nations to fight under development this is done through several bodies such as IMF, World Bank, United Nations Development Programe( UNDP)
7. It fight against crimes in the African countries: The international Court of Justice has indicated several African leaders for crimes against humanity and this has been crucial in discouraging genocide in Africa. The Arusha tribunal has been particularly useful in investigating the genocide in Rwanda.
CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED BY AFRICAN COUNTRIES FROM UN
1. It has slow implementation: The UN has been accused of failing to intervene quickly in Africa to avoid catastrophes. For example it has been accused in decisiveness during the Rwanda genocide.
2. The UN depends on contributions from member states: Unfortunately majority of its members in Africa are poor countries who from time to time are unable to remit their contributions.
3. Ideological differences between different Nations globally: particularly the major for example during the cold war ( 1940’s and 1990 ) between the Eastern and Western blocs, African countries fall victim depending on which side they support.
4. Differences in level of economic development among the nations: The UN also faces the challenges of divided loyalty among world nations for example the African union, the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty organization whose members are also UN members.
5. There is unequal treatment among the countries: Africans have also complained of not being treated equally like other continents in the UN. for instance the international Court of Justice has been accused of being too quick to single out African ;leader for crimes against humanity and ignoring crimes commited by power for countries like USA and Britain.
6. The denial of a second term of appointment to the former UN secretary General: Boutros BoutrosGhli from Egypt, has also been interpreted as an illustration of the disregard for the African views in the UN membership.
7. The use of Veto powers by the permanent member of the Security council: African Countries here added their voice to demand that some African states also acquire this veto power in order to level the status of international relation.
(G). AFRICAN AND THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM) IN 1961
The NAM is an organization comprising of less developed countries in the world. Its emergence could be traced far back to the 1955 during the Bandung conference after a number Asian countries attained political independence.
The Bandung Conference that was held in Indonesia in 1955 marked the birth of the NAM. Non aligned movement (NAM) was formed in 1961 in Belgrade Yugoslavia. Some of the participants in this conference were Jawarlal Nehru, the Indian Premier, Gamel Abdel Nasser of Egypt, president Sukarno, Indonesia and Chov En lai, the Chinese Premier: The NAM was established as an alternative to membership of either the Eastern bloc or the Western bloc
OBJECTIVES OF NAM
i. To eradicate racism in the world.
ii. To fight for disarmament in the world in the world.
iii. To enhance the participation of less- developed countries in the united Nations.
iv. To protect the independence and sovereignty of the member states.
v. To fight against the establishment of military alliances that endangered global peace.
v. To promote neutrality in the affairs of the major powers of the world among member states.
vii. To fight for the establishment of a new economic world order: that will be free from examination.
viii. To fight against neo-colonialism: through the promotion of economic independence among the poor countries of the world.
ix. To fight for independence to the countries which still suffering from colonial oppression and exploitation.
ACHIEVEMENT OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES FROM NAM
The following are some of the achievements of African states
1. It contributed to the maintenance of global peace: through avoiding being drawn into the antagonism between the two super power during the cold war.
2. It enhanced diplomatic power in global affairs by speaking in one voice.
3. It played a crucial role in convincing the rest of the world on the need for a new economic order.
4. NAM played a crucial role on global disarmament it has been crucial in preserving humanity.
5. It provided an important forum where the Afro- Asian block could discuss important matters that affected their members.
6. NAM pressured decolonization process in African countries: under colonialism in Africa using their voice in international forum especially at the UN.
7. It has played great role in environmental protection: NAM fought against the destruction of environment as a way of protecting the ozone layer and guarding against global warming in the world.
PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED BY AFRICAN COUNTRIES FROM NAM
The problem encountered include:-
1. Personality differences among African Member states. Some leaders can not seat at the same table with leader of fellow member states, thus complicating the work of the organization.
2. The break- up of the former soviet Union made some of African member states to assume that the role of the organization has come to an end.
3. Absence of enforcement machinery: such as military or peacekeeping mechanism within the movement effect its efficacy in terms of enforcing its policies.
4. Poverty: Many African member states in NAM are still economically weak, thus still suffer from political instability, which in turn under mines their involvement in global affairs.
5. Dependency economy: The dependency of many African countries on their former coloural masters has further undermined the power of the Non- Aligned movement, for example the Cote d’ivoire opposition appealed to France for assistance to dislodge the former president Laurent Ghaghbo during the 2010- 11 past election crisis.
6. Ideological differences among the member ststes: African member states of the NAM experienced ideological differences among themselves although this pledged neutrality in affairs affecting major powers of the world. This slows down the efficiency of its movement.
INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND UNDERSTANDING
A conflict: is the term which includes the actions, propagandist, the diplomatic,commercial or military threats and punishments that the contending parties take towards each other.
Normally conflicts can either be involving four levels, namely, societal, communal, interstate, and interpersonal or conflicts are grouped into five levels:-
(1) those among communities/ groups within the state.
(2) those between communities across national borders.
(3) those between communities and central governments.
(4) those between communities and multinational corporations: and.
(5) those between governments. It needs to be pointed out from the outset that overlaps can occur in this categorization, but the division can assist in identifying some of the complex ramifications through which conflicts are expressed in Africa.
CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN MOST AFRICAN COUNTRIES
The escalating problems of conflicts in Africa can be attributed to be the following:
1. Problems associated with land scarcity: difficulties arising from conflicting laws governing land tenure: boundary disputes and rival claims to specific portions of land:
demands for a review of "landlord- tenant" arrangements over land ownership: the clash of spiritual considerations with political and economic realities: complaints over government's land regulatory policies: complexities of massive human influx: and conflicts arising from land and labor relations.
2. Self-interests of some individuals: As a factor for fueling conflicts, oil in Nigeria, oil and diamonds in Angola, rubber and timber in Liberia, diamonds in Sierra Leone, and land in Zimbabwe, etc. have become one of the most controversial issues in Africa, especially through the increase in the number of armed groups exploiting such natural resources to advance their desire for self-determination or pursue other self-interest. For example, from Angola and Liberia to DRC and Sierra Leone, armed groups have exploited the natural resources inside their territories and have initiated constant wars against their respective governments.
3. The desire to control regions endowed with natural resources: The desire to control region endowed with natural resources has always increased the determination with which warring sides instigate wars, resulting in an increase of casualty figures.
In all major conflicts, the location of natural resources has always been a prime target for warring sides, and battles fought over these sites are often some of the fiercest. An example that quickly comes to mind here is the struggle for the control of the mineral- rich Kisangani in the DRC between the forces of Uganda and Rwanda. Another example can be seen in Angola, where the northeastern provinces of Luanda Norte and Luanda Sul, the location of the country's diamond deposits, were among the most highly contested sections of the country during the civil war.
4. Colonial boundaries and inter regional conflict. For example, in Kenya and Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda, Cameroon and Nigeria as well as Uganda and Tanzania.
5. Corruption, nepotism and lack of transparency in public offices. These have led to embezzlement in public funds and uneven distribution of national resources. Some people are segregated from the the national cake and hence this makes them to fight against the domination.
6. Tribalism, regionalism and religious differences. For example, Nigeria Muslims against Christians: in Uganda the central region against the northern part, in Burundi Tutsi against Hutu.
7. Weak economic base or poverty. This has been the root cause of civil ears and instability in Africa. Many Africans have turned against their government accusing them
to segregate them from sharing the national cake.
8. Abuse of human rights like freedom of speech, orbiter arrest, extra judicial killing, etc
9. Coup d’états in various countries or struggle for power.
10. Ruling regimes unwilling to step down after elections. This has been due to either vote ringing or clinging to power and this has led to political chaos. For example, Laurent Gbagbo of Ivory Coast refused to step down despite being defeated by his political opponent Alasane Quwattara during the elections held in November 2010. This led to political chaos and death of people.
11. Puppetism: Most of the leaders are used by economically powerful countries to foster in stabilities for their gain.
Strategies for conflict resolution
There are three basic procedures for arranging compromises:
1. Negotiation among parties: This procedure involves bilateral or multilateral negotiations among the parties involved.Condition for success of any negotiation is a common interest on the part of the opponents to avoid violence. The bargaining process involves:-
i. The establishment of commitments to essential positions.
ii. Determination of areas where concessions can be made.
iii. Determination of areas where concessions can be made.
iv. Commissioning of credible threats and promises.
v. Maintaining patience.
2. Mediation: This strategy involves passing messages between the parties to active agreement in the bargaining and attempts to place pressure on the antagonists to accept peace proposals that the mediator has proposed. A mediator can be, fro instance, the Security Council. In this procedure, a third party with no direct interest in the issue intervenes in the bargaining processes.
3. Adjudication and arbitration: It is strategy of conflict resolution in which the parties involved in conflict agree to submit the issues under contention to an independent tribunal. The court is supposed to decide the case on the basis of international law and
jurisdiction extends only of legal issues such as interpretation of treaty, any question of international law or the existence of breach of an international obligation. The prerequisites of successful adjudication and arbitration include:-
i. The existence of legal issues.
4. Voluntary submission of the case by both parties involved in the conflict.
5. Agreement that settlement.
6. Willingness to accept an award rather than bargain for compromise outcome.
THE NATURE, CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF TERRORISM
What is terrorism?
Terrorism: Is the use or threat of violence by groups of people to create fear for the aim of changing a certain behavior in the society. Terrorists kidnap people, hijack airplanes, set off bombs, set fires and commit Other serious crimes. The goals of terrorist differ from those of other ordinary criminals because most of Criminals want money for personal gains, to terrorist commit crimes to support political causes.
THE NATUE OF TERRORISM
The 'nature' of something is generally taken to mean the typical qualities and characteristics of something'. Hence, there are a variety of tributes of terrorism such as:
CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRORISM
1. It is often symbolic in character.
2. It is often indiscriminate in nature.
3. It typically focuses on civilian and non-combatant targets of violence.
4. It has sometimes provocative and sometimes retributive aims.
5. It causes the disruption of public order and putting in danger of public security.
6. It leads to the creation of a climate of fear to influence audience wider than the direct victims.
7. It disregard the rules of war and the rules of punishment, and
8. It has an asymmetric character (armed versus unarmed: weak versus strong).
If the nature of terrorism is to be derive from its components, thus, the nature of terrorism can be stated to be an intentional and rational act of violence to cause fear in the large audience or society for the purpose of changing behavior in the audience or society:-
CAUSES OF TERRORISM
1. Social and political injustice: people resort to terrorism when they are trying to right what they possessed to be socially and politically wrong. e.g. When they have been stripped off their land or rights.
2. Ethnicity, nationalism / separation on aggrieved group may resort to violence for nationalist or separatists reasons. This is taken as a resistance against external oppression e.g. nationalists movements commonly turned to nationalism by being the resort of an extremist function.
3. Social stratification inequalities in the distribution of scarcely resources: are an important factor for terrorism when the goods are absolutely or relatively.
4. Absence of democracy: use of draconian law which oppress population may tempt population of resort to harm the government leaders or government properties.
5. Dehumanization: the simple minded population may resort to terrorism fighting for being heard, recognized or treated as equal human being seeking liberation from government in power.
6. Religious jingoism: some religious groups have a strong belief that their religion is best than the other beliefs so the religious people may use force or violence to pressurize the dominance of that particular religion over the larger group of people in the society.
EFFECTS OF TERRORISM
1. Death of people: e.g. on 11th Sept. 2001, three airplanes have hijacked by terrorists were by 3000 people died.
2. Decline of tourism.
3. Unemployment.
4. Decline of investments due to increase of insecurity and fear, this leads to economic retardation.
5. Terrorism has forced many governments in the World to set aside huge budgets for fighting terrorism.
6. Destruction of infrastructure following the USA embassy in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi there was destruction of buildings difficult to attain federal level in EAC.
i. Tanzania waited more public education objective of goals.
ii. Tanzania feared their land will be occupied by their counter backs (fellow).
iii. Feared to lose employment opportunity.
iv. Political instability in Kenya, Uganda.
v. Power mongers, Museveni waits to get power as leader of EAC.
vi. Economic imbalance.
THE ROLE OF BIG POWERS IN MAINTAINING PEACE AND UNDERSTANDING
Big powers of the world especially the developed continue have the following roles in maintaining peace and understanding:-
1. Developing political relations of equal, mutual trust and seeking common ground while putting aside differences among them.
2. Cooperating worldwide to cope with challenges. For example, fighting against terrorism, environmental pollution.
3. Forging deep command and candid disloyal for parties involved in conflicts.
4. Advocating disarmament: the peaceful use of outer space and oppose the intrusion of weapons and an arm race in outer space. For example, in February 2008, China and Russia jointly submitted to the Conference on Disarmament a draft treaty on the prevention of the placement weapons in outer space and the threat or use of military weapons against outer space objects.
5. Take efforts to combat the illicit trade and Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) through the arms trade treaty.
6. Big powers observe in good faith their obligation under the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and Chemical Weapons Convention 9CWC) and support the multilateral effects aimed at strengthening the effectiveness of the convention. For example, China USA, Russia, etc. fulfill this.
7. They oppose the proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and they actively take part in international non proliferation efforts. For example, China hold that all states should resort to dialogue and negotiation to resolve difference in the field on none-proliferation.
8. Holding joint counter –terrorism military exercises. For example, In August 2007, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan and Uzbekistan held a joint counter terrorism military exercise in the Xinjiang Uygur in the task of combating terrorism20
THE INFLUENCE OF UN IN MAINTAINING PEACE AND UNDERSTANDING
The world experienced many tensions, conflicts and threats from big nations such as Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Australia, Hungary and Japan in 1900s. The tension among these nations led to First World War (1914-1918) and Second World War (1939- 1945).
The peaceful atmosphere of the world War disrupted as battle and deaths prevailed. Period between the First World War was characterized by efforts of the concerned big state to look at the mean through which worldwide peace and can be maintained.
After the First World War (WWI): the League of Nations was formed in1919. Its major task was to supervise peace in the world by controlling the aggressive nations such as Germany and Italy. However, the League of Nations proved to be a toothless dog that could bark without biting since aggressive actions continue and rearmament progressed. These actions led to the outbreak of the 20 Chinese National Defense in 2008 : Information from Office of the State Council of the people’s Republic of China.
After the Second World War (WWII): After the nations had proved failure and had to be changed or transformed to United Nations organization (UNO). Its major tasks, like the predecessor was to make sure that there is no occurrence of another world war. The UNO thus came into existence on 24th Oct,1945 when five big powers ratified the charter. These were China, France, the Union of soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the United Kingdom and the USA.
The role of United Nations in maintaining peace and Understanding
1. Since 1988: the UN has played an instrumental role in bringing about settlements to long running civil wars and foreign armed intervention. For example, UN in Afghanistan, Mozambique, Elsalvador, Namibia, Angola.
2. Influencing decolonization and writing constitutions organizing and monitoring election as well as establishing administrative and financial organs for the new states.
3. To handle armed conflict.
4. To invoke sanctions against aggressive stst.
5. To settle some disputes in the world.
6. To control armament in the world.
7. To fight for human rights in the world.
8. To promote environmental conservation.
9. To fight against terrorism.
GUIDING QUESTIONS
1. Assess six rationales of former East African Community.
2. Explain six rationale of continental or regional cooperation.
3. Explain six benefits of continental or economic intergration.
4. Critically assess six problems facing African economic integration or continental cooperation.
5. The formation of new East African Community is like puting new wine to the old botto. Discuss this statement by giving six points.
6. Examine six Problems facing the currently east African community
7. in six points, explain problems facing ECOWAS.
8. Why Tanzania withdraws from CMESA?
9. Explain six achievement resulting from Africa’s Participation in the UN
10. Examine six challenges encountered by African countries participation in the UN
